Englisc

Overview

Setting

Englisc is a language based on Old Englisc, carried forward to today. There is a bit of German in it, and some modern English, but it maintains its core language, unlike our language. This language is basically Old English as if it evolved like Modern German.

Calendar Information

Basic Grammar

Here is a basic grammar of Englisc:

Alphabet

• Capital: A, Æ, B, C, D, Ð, E, F, G, Ȝ, H, Ƕ, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, Œ, P, Q, R, S, T, Þ, U, V, W, X, Y, Z
• Lowercase: a, æ, b, c, d, ð, e, f, g, ȝ, h, ƕ, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, œ, p, q, r, s, t, þ, u, v, w, x, y, z
• Runic: ᚪ, ᚫ, ᛒ, ᚳ, ᛞ, ᚧ, ᛖ, ᚠ, ᚸ, ᚷ, ᚻ, ᛰ, ᛁ, ᛄ, ᛣ, ᛚ, ᛗ, ᚾ, ᚩ, ᛟ, ᛈ, ᛢ, ᚱ, ᛋ, ᛏ, ᚦ, ᚢ, ᚡ, ᚹ, ᛉ, ᚣ, ᛊ; additionally: ᛥ (st), ᛝ (ng), ᛡ (ia, io), ᛠ (ea), ᛤ (kk), ᛇ (eo)
• (please download Junicode to view the Runes)

Table of Runes for Englisc

The alphabet can also be written with runic characters, and when done in this form, can be written backwards, forwards, boustrephedonically, and vertically up or down, depending on the need of the writer. The Runic letters are arranged alphabetically in their own arrangement, different from Latin form. The V is simply a dotted-F rune. The rune ᛢ stands for QU and KW in any word. The conjunction "and" can also be shortened, especially in writing with Runes, to ⁊.

Runic alphabetical order: f u þ o r c; ȝ w h n i j; eo p x s t b; e m l ng œ d; a æ y ea ia k; kk g kw st ð v; z ƕ

There is also the letter hwair (Ƕ, ƕ) used to write "hwa" and other words beginning with HW, which is ordered after H. This is mostly a written convention to merge the two letters, but some dictionaries will order words beginning with HW as a separate letter, not between HU and HY words.

When writing Englisc, there are some abbreviations you might see, most notably the letter þ with a stroke through the top (Ꝥ ꝥ) which is short for þat.  The second is what is called 'Tironian et', a short version of 'and', written like the number 7, but straight, and descending below the line (⁊).

Pronunciation

See: Pronunciation Examples

	A	Æ	E	I	O	Œ	U	Y
short	/a/	/ɛ/, /æ/	/ɛ/, /ə/	/ɪ/	/ɔ/	/œ/	/ʊ/	/ʏ/
long	/aː/	/ɛː/, /eː/	/eː/	/iː/	/oː/	/øː/	/uː/	/yː/

⟨⟩

Notes:

• In some dialects, sounds like /ɒ/
• Umlaut of a, æ has two pronunciations: short like Bett and long like air; or short like hat and long like gäbe (stage German pronunciation)
• The schwa [ə] occurs only in unstressed syllables, for instance in besetten [bəˈsɛt:ən] 'occupy'. It is often considered a complementary allophone together with [ɛ] which cannot occur in unstressed syllables. If a sonorant follows in the syllable coda, the schwa often disappears so that the sonorant becomes syllabic, for instance Kyccen [ˈkʰytʃn̩] 'kitchen', Esel [ˈeːzl̩] 'donkey'. Before /r/, this is realized as [ɐ] in some varieties, for instance better [ˈbɛt:ɐ] 'better'.
• The vowel written either as ⟨æ⟩ or ⟨ea⟩ in some cases is pronounced as the long variant of the short /æ/

digraph	ai, ei, aȜ, eȜ	ie	æȜ	ea	au	eo	io
pronunciation	/aɪ̯/	/iː/	/ɛɪ/	/æː/	/aʊ̯/	/eːɔ/	/i̯o/

Note:

• The diphthong ⟨io⟩ is often pronounced with a slight 'y' sound at the start, so that ⟨Biologie⟩ sounds like "bjo-lo-gie"

The letters b, d, g, k, l, m, n, p, t, v, w, x sound like modern English.

• ⟨C⟩ is always like /tʃ/ in church.
• ⟨Ȝ⟩ (yogh) is a /j/-sound like yes in all positions. In inflectional endings is replaced with /g/, such as ⟨DæȜ⟩ "day" becoming ⟨Dage⟩ "days". In these cases, the ⟨G⟩ is pronounced like German ach-laut, sounding like "Daa-kheh". In adjective endings, mainly -iȜ, the yogh is replaced with a G before all inflectional endings. This should be pronounced like a regular G, though some dialects would pronounce it as an ich-laut in less formal registers.
  • In foreign loanwords, ⟨J⟩ indicates the same sound.
• ⟨Þ⟩ and ⟨Ð⟩ sound like think and that, respectively.
• ⟨H⟩ at the beginning of a word is like hard; at the end of a word (after a/o/u) like Scottish loch and after front vowels ⟨æ/e/i/œ/y⟩ like German ich.
• ⟨Q⟩ is always in the combination qu and is only used in foreign words; the native version is spelled as ⟨kw⟩.
• ⟨S⟩ is pronounced like sing in all cases except between vowels, when it sounds rose.
• ⟨W⟩ is always like wire, except in the combination ⟨wl⟩ or ⟨wr⟩ when it can sound like victor.
• ⟨Z⟩ sounds like /ts/ as in cats in any unstressed syllable, and /dz/ in a stressed syllable.

Consonants

• B - like b in bed.
• C - like ch in chisel.
• D - like d in dog.
• Ð - like that. Alternates with þ in words such as "werþ" becoming "werðem" in an inflected form
• F - like f in father. Between vowels, voiced to v
• G - like g in gold.
• Ȝ - like y in yes. In the adjective ending iȝ, it is replaced with g in inflected forms. In nouns ending in ȝ it is often replaced with g in plural forms, especially after back vowels, where it is pronounced like German 'ach'. The digraph ȝh is written to keep a vowel short, and is an ich-laut or ach-laut, depending on whether the preceding vowel is front or back.
• H - like h in hotel.
• Ƕ - like /hw/, similar to Gothic hwair.
• J - like y in yes.
• K - like k in kilogram
• L - like l in liter
• M - like m in man
• N - like n in now
• P - like p in post
• Q - always seen as qu, pronounced as in queen. Native words have kw in place of this combination
• R - like r in rose or water (American English). It is always pronounced. More common is the trilled version as in Scottish. Uvular R is found in some dialects.
• S - like s in since at the beginning and end of syllables. Between vowels it is voiced to z.
• T - like t in tiger
• Þ - like th in think. It alternates with ð
• V - like v in vase. This occurs only in foreign words
• W - like w in water
• X - like ks in ex
• Z - like ts in cats. In stressed syllables, sounds like dz

Notes:

• ⟨H⟩ can have the pronunciation /h/ at the beginning of a syllable, and /ç/ after front vowels, and /x/ after back vowels.

Nouns

See also: Nouns
Nouns have three genders (masculine, feminine, neuter), two numbers (single, plural), and four cases (nominative, genitive, dative, accusative), which are marked with case endings and the use of a definite article.

Masculine

Masculine nouns are nouns which use the article þe and can also describe male beings (Doktor, Baker, Maker, etc.), or words ending in -dom, -els, -had, -ing, -oþ. The gender is arbitrary on things, so the gender does need to be memorized.

_	singular	plural
nominative	-	-es
genitive	-(e)s	-es
dative	-(e)	-en
accusative	-	-es

• As an example, the word Stan, stone in the singular: Stan, Stanes, Stan, Stan; plural: Stanes, Stanes, Stanen, Stanes

Neuter

Neuter nouns are nouns which use the article þat and can also describe things and children (Cild, Barn, etc.), or words ending in -in, -el, -incel. The gender is arbitrary on things, so the gender does need to be memorized.

_	singular	plural
nominative	-	-e/-er
genitive	-(e)s	-e/-er
dative	-(e)	-en/-ern
accusative	-	-e/-er

As an example, the word Barn, child, baby in the singular: Barn, Barnes, Barn, Barn; plural: Barne, Barne, Barnen, Barne

Feminine

Feminine nouns are nouns which use the article þie and can also describe female beings (Doktorin, Bakestre, Makestre, etc.), or words ending in -estre, -in, -nes, -ung. The gender is arbitrary on things, so the gender does need to be memorized.

_	singular	plural
nominative	-	-e/-en
genitive	-	-e/-en
dative	-	-en
accusative	-	-e/-en

• As an example, the word Ruun, secret in the singular: Ruun; plural: Rune, Rune, Runen, Rune.
• Feminine nouns that end in an -e in the singular will have en plurals.

Pronouns

Pronouns operate like any other language, replacing the nouns already mentioned and indicating the speaker, and one to whom you speak.

Personal Pronouns

First person

These are the pronouns including the speaker, that is, I, we two, and we. The following table indicates modern English forms of these pronouns:

_	singular	dual	plural
nominative	I	we two	we
genitive	my	our two's	our
dative	to/for me	to/for us two	to/for us
accusative	me	us two	us

And now in Niw Englisc:

_	singular	dual	plural
nominative	ic	wit	wiȝ
genitive	mein	unker	user
dative	miȝ	unk	us
accusative	mic	unkit	usic

Second Person

The second person is the person to whom you are speaking. It is thou (you), ye two, and ye.

_	singular	dual	plural
nominative	þu	ȝit	ȝiȝ
genitive	þein	inker	ȝuer
dative	þiȝ	ink	ȝu
accusative	þic	inkit	ȝuic

Third Person

The third person is whomever you're talking about; it is the person 'over there.'

_	He	She	It	They
nominative	he	schie	it	hie
genitive	sein	her	sein	her
dative	him	her	him	hem
accusative	hin	schie/scho	it	hie

Indefinite Pronouns

These pronouns indicate someone unknown or unnamed to the speaker or person spoken to. The prefix a- adds the meaning any, æȝ- means each

• anyone, anything: aƕa, aƕat
• each/everyone, each/everything (individually): æȝƕa, æȝƕat
• each/every one, each/every thing (as a group, together): geƕa, geƕat
• no one, nothing: neƕa, neƕat
• someone, something: natƕa, natƕat
• anything: oȝht
• nothing: noȝht

Indefinite Pronouns with Adjective Endings

These words function like pronouns, but have adjective endings

• each: æȝƕilc
• each of two, both (individually); æȝƕæðer
• both, each of two (as a group, together): geƕæðer
• each, every, any: geƕilc
• neither of two: neƕæðer

The most commonly used:

• ælc: each
• swilc: such
• þyslic: such

Not a pronoun, but closely associated:

• maniȝ: many a
• Example: Many a student came by the school: maniȝ Student kaam be þer Skole forbiȝ.

Interrogative Pronouns

These pronouns are question words, asking information from someone

_	Who?	What?
nominative	ƕa	ƕat
genitive	ƕas	ƕas
dative	ƕam	ƕam
accusative	ƕan	ƕat

_	Which of two? (m)
nominative	ƕæðer
genitive	ƕæðeres
dative	ƕæðerem
accusative	ƕæðeren/ƕæðer

Which of many?

_	masculine	feminine	neuter	plural
nominative	ƕilc	ƕilce	ƕilc	ƕilce
genitive	ƕilces	ƕilcer	ƕilces	ƕilcer
dative	ƕilcem	ƕilcer	ƕilcem	ƕilcen
accusative	ƕilcen	ƕilce	ƕilc	ƕilce

It is important to note that ƕæðer and ƕilc are used with 2 or more than 2 things, respectively.

• Mid ƕæðerem Hemþ scholde ic utgaan? with which shirt (of two) should I go outside?
• Ƕilc Magazin scholde ic bycgen? Which magazine (of many) should I buy?

Articles

Definite Article

The definite article declines, or changes form, based on the gender of the noun it describes. The article can be masculine, feminine, neuter, or plural. It has cases to agree with the nouns it describes. This word translates the English 'the, that.'

_	masculine	feminine	neuter	plural
nominative	þe	þie	þat	þie
genitive	þes	þer	þes	þer
dative	þem	þer	þem	þen
accusative	þen	þie	þat	þie

Indefinite Article

This word translates the English 'a, an.' An adjective following this is in the weak form.

_	masculine	feminine	neuter	plural
nominative	an	ane	an	nane
genitive	anes	aner	anes	naner
dative	anem	aner	anem	nanen
accusative	anen	ane	an	nane

There is no plural form for 'a, an' but if it means 'single, only' then it can have a plural form, as in 'the only women here' (þie anen Weife hier). If you intend to mean 'one' instead of 'a, an' then you write a double-a, as in 'aan, aanes' et al.

This / These

This word translates the English 'this, these.' An adjective following this is in the weak form. In a stressed form, meaning 'this one here directly in front of me' or 'this one we have been discussing just now' you write 'þies, þiesses' et al.

This / These

_	masculine	feminine	neuter	plural
nominative	þis	þisse	þis	þisse
genitive	þisses	þisser	þisses	þisser
dative	þissem	þisser	þissem	þissen
accusative	þissen	þisse	þis	þisse

The same, the very same

The same

_	masculine	feminine	neuter	plural
nominative	þe ilce	þieilcen	þætilce	þieilcen
genitive	þesilcen	þerilcen	þesilcen	þerilcen
dative	þemilcen	þerilcen	þemilcen	þenilcen
accusative	þenilcen	þieilcen	þætilce	þieilcen

The same

_	masculine	feminine	neuter	plural
nominative	þe selfe	þie selfe	þæt selfe	þie selfen
genitive	þes selfen	þer selfen	þes selfen	þer selfen
dative	þem selfen	þer selfen	þem selfen	þen selfen
accusative	þen selfen	þie selfe	þæt selfe	þie selfen

Adjectives

Strong Endings

Adjectives add endings to tell their function in a sentence. When standing before a noun, they add strong endings.

Strong adjective endings

_	masculine	feminine	neuter	plural
nominative	-	-e	-	-e
genitive	-es	-er	-es	-er
dative	-em	-er	-em	-en
accusative	-en	-e	-	-e

• Example: Stan (m), great Stan (big stone), ȝung Cild (young child), ȝunges Mæȝdens (of a young girl), aldem Mann (to an old person (male or female)), kalde Dage (cold days)

Weak Endings

Weak endings occur after an article having an ending is placed before a noun. This is before the words þe, þie, þat, mein, þein (et al), an, þis.

Strong adjective endings

_	masculine	feminine	neuter	plural
nominative	-e	-e	-e	-en
genitive	-en	-en	-en	-en
dative	-en	-en	-en	-en
accusative	-en	-e	-e	-en

• Example: þe Stan -> þe grœne Stan; þat Mæȝden -> þat ȝunge Mægden; þie Frowe -> mid þer wlitigen Frowe

Comparison

For all adjectives, comparison is made adding the suffixes -er and -est. For example:

• gemæn, gemæner, gemænst- (common, commoner, commonest)
• dier, dierer, dierst- (dear, dearer, dearest)

Some adjectives have irregular comparative forms, with umlaut. They are all single-syllable, and quite common:

• ald, ælder, ældest (old)
• brad, bræder, brædest (broad)
• ferr, fierrer, fierrst (far)
• great, grieter, grietst (great, big)
• ȝung, ȝynger, ȝyngst (young)
• haȝh, hæȝher, hæȝhst (high)
• lang, længer, længst (long)
• scort, scœrter, scœrtst (short)
• strang, strænger, strængst (strongest)

And a small number of adjectives have a completely different comparative/superlative form than the positive:

• god, better, betst (good, better, best)
• lytel, læsse, læst (little, less, least)
• micel, mære, mæst ((great, much), more, most)
• yfel, wiers, wierst (evil, worse, worst)

Word-formation: Adjective endings

To make new adjectives, you can use a set of adjective suffixes to nouns, forming new words:

• bær - bearing, having; ex: liȝhtbære light-bearing, hornbære having horns; with verbs means 'able/ible' - hieren 'to hear' becomes hierbær 'hearable'
• en - made of X; ex: wuden wooden, fellen made of skins, gylden golden
• ern - in the direction of; ex: norðern, suðern, western, eastern
• fæst - fast, fixed, firm; ex: aarfæst firm in honor, virtuous, ærendfæst fixed in an errand
• fald - X-fold, X-times; ex: anfald one time; single, twifald two times, double
• full - full
• iȝ - having the quality of X (note: the ȝ turns to g before adjective endings)
• iȝht - a more emphatic version of iȝ, noting a higher degree of the trait; ex: geþyldiȝ, geþyldiȝht patient
• isc - having a trait like X; cildisc - childish
• lic - X-like
• læs - X-less; arlæs honorless
• el - forms adjectives from verbs; spreken -> sprekel talkative, etten -> ettel voracious
• sum - in an X manner
• ward - notes position or direction
• wende - forms adjectives from nouns and other adjectives

Verbs

Verbs are those words describing an action or a state of being. Verbs are either strong or weak, like nouns and adjectives. Strong verbs change their vowel to indicate tense, while weak verbs add a dental suffix (-de, -te) to indicate tense. All verbs conjugate for person, singular/plural, and tense (past/present).

Weak Verbs

See: Liste þer waken Verben

A weak verb has the following endings in the present tense, using maken to make, do as an example:

_	sg.	pl.
Ic	make	makeþ
þu	makest	makeþ
he/schie/it	makeþ	makeþ

_	sg.	pl.
I	make, do make, am making	we make, do make, are making
thou	makest, doest make, art making	ye make, do make, are making
he/she/it	makes, does make, is making	they make, do make, are making

So, the endings for weak and strong verbs are:

• ic -e
• þu -(e)st
• he -(e)þ
• wiȝ/ȝiȝ/hie -eþ

Just add the endings to the stem (maken is the stem mak- and the infinitive ending -en)

If the verb ends in a d/t, or some consonant cluster that makes it difficult to hear the ending, you keep the e in the 2nd and 3rd person. The plural ending is the same for all persons.

You can also derive verbs from adjectives by means of umlaut. For example:

• full - full -> fyllen to fill
• gold - gold -> gylden - to gild
• hard - hard -> hærden - to harden
• lang - long -> lengen - to lengthen
• strang - strong -> strengen - to strengthen

Past tense of weak verbs

Weak verbs form the past tense with either -de or -te. If the word ends in a voiceless consonant, such as k, p, s/z, then it will add -te, otherwise, -de. If the verb ends in some kind of consonant cluster that makes the ending hard to hear, add e between the verb stem and the ending (gelanden -> gelandede).

The following illustrate the past tense endings:

_	sg.	pl.
Ic	makte	makten
þu	maktest	makten
he/schie/it	makte	makten

_	sg.	pl.
Ic	gelandede	gelandeden
þu	gelandedest	gelandeden
he/schie/it	gelandede	gelandeden

Irregular Weak Verbs

See: Irregular Weak Verbs
There are some weak verbs which, like modern English and German, are irregular. They are equivalent to think, thought, thought.

_	sg.	-	pl.
Ic	þenke	wiȝ	þenkeþ
þu	þenkst	ȝiȝ	þenkeþ
he/schie/it	þenkþ	hie	þenkeþ

And the past:

_	sg.	-	pl.
Ic	þoȝhte	wiȝ	þoȝhten
þu	þoȝhtest	ȝiȝ	þoȝhten
he/schie/it	þoȝhte	hie	þoȝhten

Strong Verbs

Strong verbs are those verbs that change the vowel in the stem to indicate the tense, such as 'write, wrote, written' in modern English. It works essentially the same way in Niw Englisc, just that there are a few more strong verbs, and you can place them into 7 broad types to make it easier to predict their forms. Basically, a strong verb will look like this in the present:

_	sg.	-	pl.
Ic	fare	wiȝ	fareþ
þu	færst	ȝiȝ	fareþ
he/schie/it	færþ	hie	fareþ

And the past:

_	sg.	-	pl.
Ic	foor	wiȝ	foren
þu	foorst	ȝiȝ	foren
he/schie/it	foor	hie	foren

Like all verbs, the plural is the same ending for all three persons. The ic and he forms are the same, however, in the past tense.

Type 1 -ei/a/i

See: Strong Verbs type 1
The first type of strong verb has a ei vowel in the stem. Verbs like wreiten, streifen, sleiden, and sweifen are all type 1 verbs, and are declined the same way:

Streifen - to strive

_	sg.	-	pl.
Ic	streife	wiȝ	streifeþ
þu	streifst	ȝiȝ	streifeþ
he/schie/it	streifþ	hie	streifeþ

And the past:

_	sg.	-	pl.
Ic	straaf	wiȝ	strafen
þu	straafst	ȝiȝ	strafen
he/schie/it	straaf	hie	strafen

And in the perfect tense with haben to have:

• ic habe gestriffen, etc.

Please note here that there is a slight change in the stem, doubling the consonant. This is merely to indicate the vowel preceding is short, but it does make some consonants voiceless that would otherwise be voiced (f sound instead of v sound, þ instead of ð, etc.)

Special note on þ/ð - the letter thorn (þ) is the voiceless version of eth (ð), and as such, will alternate with it in certain forms of a verb or other word, depending on how it's used in a sentence. Take here the example of leiðen - to go, sail, travel:

_	sg.	-	pl.
Ic	leiðe	wiȝ	leiðeþ
þu	leiðest/leiþst	ȝiȝ	leiðeþ
he/schie/it	leiðeþ	hie	leiðeþ

And the past:

_	sg.	-	pl.
Ic	laaþ	wiȝ	laðen
þu	laðest	ȝiȝ	laðen
he/schie/it	laaþ	hie	laðen

• Perfect:

_	sg.	-	pl.
Ic	em geliþþen	wiȝ	sind geliþþen
þu	ert geliþþen	ȝiȝ	sind geliþþen
he/schie/it	is geliþþen	hie	sind geliþþen

Type 2 ie-o-o

Driegen - to endure

_	sg.	-	pl.
Ic	driege	wiȝ	driegeþ
þu	driegst	ȝiȝ	driegeþ
he/schie/it	driegþ	hie	driegeþ

And the past:

_	sg.	prn	-	pl.	prn
Ic	droog	droːχ	wiȝ	drogen	droːχən
þu	droogst	droːχəst	ȝiȝ	drogen	droːχən
he/schie/it	droog	droːχ	hie	drogen	droːχən

• Subjunctive II:

_	sg.	prn	-	pl.	prn
Ic	drœge	drøçə	wiȝ	drœgen	drøçən
þu	drœgest	drøçəst	ȝiȝ	drœgen	drøçən
he/schie/it	drœge	drøçə	hie	drœgen	drøçə

And in the perfect tense with haben to have:

_	sg.	-	pl.
Ic	habe gedrogen	wiȝ	habeþ gedrogen
þu	hast gedrogen	ȝiȝ	habeþ gedrogen
he/schie/it	haþ gedrogen	hie	habeþ gedrogen

Special Note: verbs whose stems end in yogh ȝ pronounce it like English yes in the present after e/i, but in the past tense, it sounds like 'ch' in the German 'ach' (IPA: x). This is a sound change based in historical linguistics, and needs to be memorized. When the vowel umlauts for the subjunctive, this sound further changes to the German 'ich' sound (IPA: ç).

Example: flieȝen to flee

Subjunctive II:

_	sg.	-	pl.
Ic	flœȝe	wiȝ	flœȝen
þu	flœȝest	ȝiȝ	flœȝen
he/schie/it	flœȝe	hie	flœȝen

Type 3 - e/i-a-o

See: Strong Verbs type 3
Example: helpen - to help

_	sg.	-	pl.
Ic	helpe	wiȝ	helpeþ
þu	hilpst	ȝiȝ	helpeþ
he/schie/it	hilpþ	hie	helpeþ

And the past:

_	sg.	-	pl.
Ic	halp	wiȝ	halpen
þu	halpst	ȝiȝ	halpen
he/schie/it	halp	hie	halpen

Past subjunctive is a little irregular, normally taking æ, but can take the 'u' vowel as an archaism:

_	sg.	-	pl.
Ic	hulpe	wiȝ	hulpen
þu	hulpest	ȝiȝ	hulpen
he/schie/it	hulpe	hie	hulpen

Perfect:

_	sg.	-	pl.
Ic	habe geholpen	wiȝ	habeþ geholpen
þu	hast geholpen	ȝiȝ	habeþ geholpen
he/schie/it	haþ geholpen	hie	habeþ geholpen

Type 4 - e-a-o

beran to bear

_	sg.	-	pl.
Ic	bere	wiȝ	bereþ
þu	birst	ȝiȝ	bereþ
he/schie/it	birþ	hie	bereþ

And the past:

_	sg.	-	pl.
Ic	bar	wiȝ	haren
þu	barst	ȝiȝ	haren
he/schie/it	bar	hie	haren

Type 5 - e-a-e

See: Strong Verbs type 5

These verbs alternate between e-a-e in the tenses:

kweðen - to say

_	sg.	-	pl.
Ic	kweðe	wiȝ	kweðeþ
þu	kwiþst	ȝiȝ	kweðeþ
he/schie/it	kwiþþ	hie	kweðeþ

And the past:

_	sg.	-	pl.
Ic	kwaþ	wiȝ	kwaðen
þu	kwaþst	ȝiȝ	kwaðen
he/schie/it	kwaþ	hie	kwaðen

Type 6 -a/o/a

See Strange Verbe Kynn 6

• faren - to go, travel

_	sg.	-	pl.
Ic	fare	wiȝ	fareþ
þu	færst	ȝiȝ	fareþ
he/schie/it	færþ	hie	fareþ

And the past:

_	sg.	-	pl.
Ic	for	wiȝ	foren
þu	forst	ȝiȝ	foren
he/schie/it	for	hie	foren

Type 7 -a/e/a

See Strange Verbe Kynn 7

• scaden - to separate; scadend-, gescaden

_	sg.	-	pl.
Ic	scade	wiȝ	scadeþ
þu	scædest	ȝiȝ	scadeþ
he/schie/it	scædeþ	hie	scadeþ

And the past:

_	sg.	-	pl.
Ic	scedd	wiȝ	scedden
þu	sceddest	ȝiȝ	scedden
he/schie/it	scedd	hie	scedden

• floken - to clap, strike; flokendi, gefloken

_	sg.	-	pl.
Ic	floke	wiȝ	flokeþ
þu	flœkst	ȝiȝ	flokeþ
he/schie/it	flœkþ	hie	flokeþ

And the past:

_	sg.	-	pl.
Ic	flekk	wiȝ	flekken
þu	flekkest	ȝiȝ	flekken
he/schie/it	flekk	hie	flekken

• bannen - to summon; bannend-, gebannen

_	sg.	-	pl.
Ic	banne	wiȝ	banneþ
þu	bænnest	ȝiȝ	banneþ
he/schie/it	bænneþ	hie	banneþ

And the past:

_	sg.	-	pl.
Ic	benn	wiȝ	bennen
þu	bennest	ȝiȝ	bennen
he/schie/it	benn	hie	bennen

Type 7 -irregular

See: Type 7 Irregular Verbs
There are a few type 7 verbs with irregular past tenses, a remnant of the old reduplicated verbs that all Germanic languages had at one point.

• beaten, beft, gebeaten
• dræden, drerd, gedræden
• haaten, heȝht/hett, gehaten
• laaken, lelk, gelaaken
• læten, lert, gelæten
• ræden, rerd/redd, geræden
• spaaten, speft, gespaaten

Irregular Verbs

• See: Irregular Verbs

These verbs are very irregular and have such a high frequency, that it's better just to memorize them.

• don - to do
• gaan - to go
• haben - to have
• hycgen - to think
• libben - to live
• secgen - to say
• wesen/been - to be; the only verb to have a distinct future tense form

Modal Verbs / Preterite-Present Verbs

See: Preterite-Present Verbs
Modal verbs in Niw Englisc work similarly to German. They have full conjugations, and some can act alone without another verb to complete their meanings.

• Modals: durren, kunnen, magen, moten, scullen, þurfen, willen
• Preterite-Present: agen, benugen, dugen, gemunen, genugen, witten
• As an example, the verb kunnen which alone means 'to be acquainted with, to know' and with an infinitive 'to be able to, can, know how to'

Numbers

See: Numbers

• 1-20: an, tweȝn, þrie, fier, feif, six, sefen, aȝht, neiȝn, tien, endlefen, twelf, þrietien, fiertien, feiftien, sixtien, sefentien, aȝhttien, neiȝntien, tweȝntiȝ
• decades: tien, tweȝntiȝ, þrittiȝ, fiertiȝ, feiftiȝ, sixtiȝ, sefentiȝ, aȝhttiȝ, neiȝntiȝ, hund/hundred, endlefentiȝ (110), twelftiȝ (120)
• hundreds: hund/hundred, twahund, þriehund, fierhund, feifhund...
• larger numbers: þusend, tienþusend, hundþusend, Million (10^6), Billion (10^9), Trillion (10^12), Quadrillion (10^15), Quintillion (10^18), et al.

Writing numbers: when writing numbers, like in German, they are written together, with the digits preceding the decades. When writing hundreds, you write hundred when it's an even hundred (100, 200,..., 900), but otherwise, the shortened form is used.

• 31: anandþrittiȝ
• 568: feifhundaȝhtandsixtiȝ
• 9327: neiȝnþusendþriehundsefenandtweȝntiȝ

Math

• Addition: aan and aan sind tweȝn, aan plus tweȝn makeþ þrie, aan and fier sind feif
• Subtraction: aan minus aan is null; tweȝntiȝ wane þrie is sefentien
• Multiplication: þrifeald þrie is neiȝn, feif seiðen feif is feifandtweȝntiȝ
• Division: tweȝntiȝ gedld þurh feif is fier
• Fractions: feif fierþlinge (5/4) (formed by the ordinal plus the ending -ling); special fraction: Half (þrie Halfe - 3/2, uses the plural)

Prepositions

See: Prepositions

Genitive

• andlang - alongside
• ƕeilen - during
• inteiden - during (a variant from in Teiden - in times)
• innerseids - inside of
• midhelpe - with the help of
• oferseids - on top of
• onstede - in place of, instead of
• to - towards, in the direction of
• underseids - underneath, on the bottom of
• utenseids - outside of
• wiþ - opposite of

Dative

• buten - besides, except
• biȝ - by, near
• gelang - depending on
• mid - with
• of - from, out of
• onmang - among
• oþ - until
• seiþ - after (a period of time)
• to - to, at;
• ut - out of

Accusative

• þurh - through
• wiþ - against (ic feȝhte wiþ hin I fight with/against him)

Dative/Accusative

• in - in, into
• ofer - over, above; across; (he stændeþ ofer þem Feld he's standing over the field; he geng ofer þen Feld - he went across the field)
• on - on, onto
• ongeȝn - opposite, against, over against, in a direction opposite to; (it hængþ ongeȝn þem Wall - I'm against the wall; þu gæst ongeȝn þen Stream - you're walking in a direction opposite the stream)
• under - under

Syntax

Nouns

All Nouns (substantives) are written with a capital letter, including adjectives acting as nouns. All nouns have gender to them; this is not an indication of natural gender, but it is merely an indicator of how to decline the noun in the sentence.
Nouns can be masculine, feminine, or neuter; they can be singular or plural in number; they have four cases: nominative, genitive, dative, and accusative.

Accusative Case

This is the case of the direct object of a sentence, and the object of some prepositions. In a sentence such as 'I see the boy' Ic see þen Knafen, the word Knafen is in the accusative case, as indicated by the article þen and the ending n on the noun.

Verbs

Verbs agree in number and person with the subject of the sentence: Ic finde, he findeþ. Verbs also carry tense and mood, as in 'ic fare - I travel' and 'ic for - I traveled.'

A contrary-to-fact statement is in subjunctive mood: ic fœre mid ȝu if ic Geld hæfde - I would travel with you if I had the money. A statement of fact is in the indicative mood: ic fare mid ȝu, forþen ic Geld habe - I travel with you because I do have the money. A command is in the imperative mood, and written with an exclamation point: Finde schie! - Find her! Indirect speech is in present subjunctive: Þe Eðelþeȝn sæȝde, þat he sekk sei - the foreign minister said he is sick (but I cannot verify this).

• Þie Polizei (Burgward) sæȝde, schie werke, þat Barn to finden - the police said it is working to find the child.

Articles

• The definite article (þe, þie, þat) serves the same function as in German, and the English words "the" and "that".
  • The difference is in how the article is emphasized in speech. Þe Knafe findeþ þat Handy The boy finds the cell-phone versus Þe Knafe findeþ þat Handy The boy finds that cellphone.
• Direct Articles can merge with prepositions in certain instances, as in modern German.
  • In þem => im
  • To þem => tom
  • To þer => tor

Prepositions

• As in any other Germanic language, prepositions come before a noun, article, and adjective to indicate its relationship with the rest of the sentence: with the young boy, in the blue ocean, etc. [mid þem ȝungen Knapen, in þen bluen Garsecg]
• The difference between Englisc and other Germanic languages is that in certain instances, the preposition follows the noun it describes. It only occurs in certain set instances, so it's very easy to tell when it would occur.
  • A preposition may follow the pronoun when doing so places the preposition next to a verb: ic him mid gaa I go with him, þu her to geng you went to her

Conjunctions

Coordinating

Coordinating conjunctions are the conjunctions that link two complete sentences together. In Englisc, they are: and, ak, oþþe (and, but, or); neither/nor ne...ne eak, naƕæðer...ne; either/or æȝþer...ȝe; both/and ȝe...ȝe; therefore þonn.

• Ic fand þat Handy and ic kallde hie I found the cellphone and I called them
• Þu hrepst ak þu þiȝ ne ondrerdst? you screamed but weren't scared?
• Wit kunneþ int Huus gaan oþþe wit kunneþ umtreden we can go into the house or walk around
• Ic þenke, þonn ic em. I think, therefore I am.

Subordinating

Subordinating conjunctions are those that link a sentence with a dependent clause that completes the meaning of the independent clause.  They are always preceded with a comma, and the conjugated verb must be the final element of the clause.  The only exception is with modal verb phrases with 3 or more verbs.

• als - as
• ærþem before: Greip þeine Kæge ærþem wiȝ þie Dure klyseþ. Grab your keys before we close the door.
• forþen because: wiȝ habeþ an niwe Auto, forþen wiȝ an Niwe bycgen þorften we have a new car because we needed to buy a new one.
• nefne unless, except - wiȝ ne kunneþ gaan, nefne þu þeinen Rycgsakk bringst we can't go unless you bring your backpack.
• nuþat now that
• oþ until
• siþþen - since
• so...als just...as
• so son - as soon as
• soþat - so that
• toþen in order to/that
• þa - when (at a definite point in time) - þa he his Katte fand, hlog he when he found his cat, he laughed.
• þeaȝh - although
• þenden - while - þenden wiȝ þisse Rosen planteþ, gaa tor Scyppen and bring us anen Turl while we plant these roses, go to the shed and bring us a trowel.
• þann - when (in the future at some indefinite time) - þann þu onkommst, nimm þeine Scoȝhe of when you arrive, take your shoes off.

Simple Sentences

• The word order in a simple sentence is Subject, Verb, Object
• If the object is a single pronoun, dative or accusative, you can place it before the verb. Ic hin fand I found him, Wiȝ hem helpeþ we are helping them.
• This is a very natural order when there is only a single pronoun object, otherwise, the objects all follow the verb: ic fand þen Knafen in þem Beam I found the boy in the tree

Complex Sentences

Complex sentences are those which contain a main clause and a subordinate clause. Subordinate clauses follow the order: Relative Pronoun + Subject + Object + Verb. The verb is the final unit in the sentence.

Example:

• I see that she has a phone.
• Ic see, þat schie an Telefon haþ

A more complex sentence:

• I know that she will find her book
• Ic waat, þat schie here Book finden wirþ

Another example:

• He says that his sister has a new cellphone.
• He sæȝþ, þat seine Swester an niwe Handy habe.

In each case, the verb is the final thing in the subordinate clause.

Here's a more complex example:

• The brown-haired man knew that he would need to find a new car.
• Þe brunfaxe Werr wiste, þat he an niwe Auto finden þœrfte.
• The young girl knew, that her brother would have been seen in the box.
• Þat ȝonge Mæȝden wiste, þat her Broðer in þer Box wære geseen worden wesen.

Questions

There are two ways to form questions - Verb-first, and using a question word. The simplest way to make a question is to put verb first, subject second, and then the rest of the sentence:

• Þu findest þeine Swester - You find your sister.
• Findest þu þeine Swester? - Do you find your sister? (taken as are you looking for your sister?)

The second way to ask a question uses a question word to get information, such as ƕær/ƕider/ƕanen (where/to where/from where), ƕa/ƕat (who/what), ƕei/ƕy (why?), ƕenn? (when), hu (how), to ƕon/for ƕon (to what end, for what purpose)

• To ƕon gæst þu mid her? - To what end are you going with her?
• ƕider foorst þu ȝesternnaȝht? - Where'd you go last night?

Word Order of Elements

While sentence order is typically Subject-Conjugated Verb-Object, between the verb and object, that's where you normally place the adverbs of time, manner, then place.

Example:

• Ic will morgen to Disney faren I want to go to Disney tomorrow. (morgen time: tomorrow; to Disney place: to Disney)
• Mein Swester snaak ȝesternnaȝht softe tom Kyccen My sister quietly snuck to the kitchen last night (time: ȝesternnaȝht, manner: softe, place: tom Kyccen)

Objects typically follow the order of dative object, then accusative object.

normal:

• "Ic gife meinem Fader þat Geld" (I give my father the money)
• "Ic gife it him" (I give it to him)
• "Ic gife him þat Geld" (I give him the money)
• "Ic gife it meinem Fader " (I give it to my father)
• "Ic gife þat Geld meinem Fader " (I give the money to my father)

unusual:

• "Ic gife þat Geld him" (I give the money to him)

very strange (but still correct):

• "Ic gife him it" (I give him it)
• "Ic gife meinem Fader it" (I give my father it)

Dictionary

• Dictionary of all words
• Nouns
  • Family Words
  • Body Parts
• Adjektive
• Verbs
  • Irregular Verbs
  • Preterite-Present Verbs
• 100 basic words
• 1000 basic words
• 20 Common verbs
• Phrasebook

Example texts

• Our Father
• Genesis 1
• Babel Text
• Wikiȝungen
• Wikipedia Articles
• Sample Text
• Stille Naȝht
• Moses

• Genesis 1:23: And þær was Æfen, and þær was Morgen-þe feifte Dæȝ
• Genesis 1:23 (Run): ᚪᚾᛞ ᚦᚫᚱ ᚹᚪᛋ ᚫᚠᛖᚾ, ᚪᚾᛞ ᚦᚫᚱ ᚹᚪᛋ ᛗᚩᚱᚸᛖᚾ-ᚦᛖ ᚠᛖᛁᚠᛏᛖ ᛞᚫᚷ
• If man seinen Computer mid Windows 7 aniwe, kyðe man snude seen, hu snell sein Computer been kann. Þie Swifte þisses Bedreifsystems warþ oft im Internet gewritten wesen.
• Þe Senator haþ seine Party gewendt. Senator Arlen Spector, þe ærstens in 1966 gecosen wurðe, bodede þat he 2010 als Demokrat rinnen wolde.

• Headline:
  • "Supersnell US-Jet ne spœwþ bei seinem Testflyht"
  • ᛋᚢᛈᛖᚱᛋᚾᛖᛚᛚ᛬ᚢᛋ᛫ᛄᛖᛏ᛬ᚾᛖ᛬ᛋᛈᛟᚹᚦ᛬ᛒᛖᛁ᛬ᛋᛖᛁᚾᛖᛗ᛬ᛏᛖᛥᚠᛚᚣᚻᛏ

• Þe Hobbit: In anem Hol im Grund, þær lifde an Hobbit.

Uses

Englisc is usable in many fields, including science, education, diplomacy, and every day life. If you'd like to use the language and expand it, please help out and put up some texts in the language.

Lessons

Appendices

• Dictionary
• Names
• Calendar
• Animals
• Phrasebook
• Sentences
• Runic Vocabulary
• Swadesh List, List 2