List of derivation methodsedit
The city for conlangs
The purpose of this page is to collect a fairly comprehensive list of derivational morphology methods (e.g., affixes) which can be used to derive more vocabulary from existing roots. Several existing conlangs have extensive derivational morphology methods (e.g., Volapük, Esperanto, Ithkuil, Ladekwa, and many others), but as far as we can tell there is no comprehensive list comparing all their affix inventories, those of natural languages, and other possible ways to derive more words from roots.
Gary Shannon has made a start at a list of derivation functions.
Good sources would include the Ithkuil site, the Ladekwa site, the gjâ-zym-byn site, a list of Esperanto affixes, & ditto for Volapük and Ido. Rick Harrison's article on "Verb Aspect" covers several possibilities for using aspect-marking to derive one verb/action word from another.
Other resources include these CONLANG mailing list threads:
And this konyalanguage mailing list thread, on semantic conversions between nouns, verbs, modifiers and adpositions:
This list can't be exhaustive of the possibilities. For instance, in Hixkaryana several of the verb > noun patterns can involve tense distinctions; in addition to some of the affixes mentioned below there are others with the same basic meaning but a different tense. Esperanto does a limited amount of this with its tense/aspect distinctions in participles.
[edit] List of affixation semantic patterns
| Derivation pattern | Example derivations | Conlang and Natlang parallels | |
| Opposite (quality) | happy > sad clear > vague | English "un-" French "des-" | |
| Opposite (reverse action) - agent and patient remain the same, action of the verb changes | earn <==> spend stretch <==> squeeze | Esperanto "mal-" | |
| Opposite/passivization - agent and patient or experiencer and focus swap places | to hit > to be hit by to like > to be pleasing to | Ceqli "be-" | |
| Opposite (complementary action) - swap agent of ditransitive verb with source/recpient, leaving patient the same | throw <==> catch lend <==> borrow
give <==> receive | gjâ-zym-byn "-θaj" | |
| Causative (derive VERB "causing PATIENT to become ADJ") | know > to teach healthy > to heal | English "-ify", Volapük "-ük", Esperanto "-ig" | |
| Causative from other verb (increase transitivity, turn impersonal verb into agent-intransitive, intransitive verb into transitive, transitive into ditransitive) | to rain > to water (plants, etc.) to die > to kill | Navaho -ł, Maori whaka-, Kele te- | |
| Motion purpose: go somewhere in order to do VERB | to buy > to go shopping | . | |
| Relationship > person which is in that relationship to someone else | fatherhood > father marriage > spouse | Volapük mat > matan | |
| Person who is doing VERB at the moment (nominal participle) | run > runner | English -er Esperanto -anto (also future -onto and past -into) | |
| Person who does VERB in company with someone else | to travel > travel companion to have sex > lover | Hixkaryana "-hɨyemɨ" Greek "syn-" | |
| Person who does VERB habitually / as an amateur... | conlang > conlanger | English -er Esperanto -em-ul- | |
| Person who does VERB professionally / is concerned with NOUN professionally | play music > musician teeth > dentist | English -ist, -er, -or Esperanto -ist- | |
| Place where VERB is typically done | to cook > kitchen to sleep > bedroom | Hixkaryana "-toho" Esperanto "-ej-" | |
| Place with lots of NOUN | book > library tree > forest | Esperanto "-ej-" gjâ-zym-byn "-ĵwa" | |
| Time when VERB is typically done | to sleep > night to snow > winter | Hixkaryana "-toho" | |
| Payment received for something | professional work > salary menial work > wages | Hixkaryana "-txhetɨ" | |
| Tool used for doing VERB | to write > writing-implement | Esperanto "-il" | |
| Substance used for doing VERB | to wash > soap
to write > ink, graphite, etc. | Esperanto "-ajx" gjâ-zym-byn "-ha" | |
| Body part/faculty used for doing VERB | walk > legs and feet think > mind or brain? | gjâ-zym-byn "-ŋĭw" | |
| Thing or substance to which VERB is typically done | to read > text to eat > food | gjâ-zym-byn "-kar" | |
| Thing or substance resulting from VERB | to cry > tears to sweat (v.) > sweat (n.) | Hixkaryana "-nɨ-...-nɨ" gjâ-zym-byn "-Φa" | |
| ADJ pertaining to NOUN | mind > mental forest > arboreal | Ido "-ala" gjâ-zym-byn "-za" | |
| ADJ = made of NOUN | gold > golden wood > wooden | gjâ-zym-byn "-na" | |
| ADJ = resembling, savoring of NOUN | cat > catlike mint > minty | English "-like", "-ish", "-y" Esperanto "-eca", "-eska" | |
| ADJ = supplied with, having some/much NOUN | money > solvent or rich word > expressive or verbose | Volapük "-er" Esperanto -hava, -plena | |
| ADJ = lacking or sparsely supplied with NOUN | teeth > toothless money > poor | Greek "a-" English "-less" | |
| Scattering, chaosizing | break > shatter fall > fall apart | Volapük "dä-" | |
| Augmentation | big > huge house > mansion | Hixkaryana "ymo" English "mega-", "super-", "-zilla" | |
| Pejoration | man > scoundrel child > brat | Hixkaryana "tho" Volapük "lu-" | |
| ADJ = tending to often do VERB / be ADJ | think > thoughtful forget > forgetful, absentminded | English -ful Esperanto -em | |
| To VERB more than / to a greater degree than does NOUN | be sold > outsell perform > outperform | English "out-" | |
| In-law and step-relationship kinship terms from basic blood kinship terms | sister > sister-in-law mother > mother-in-law | Volapük "lü-" Esperanto "bo-" | |
| ADVERB = for the purpose of VERB | Hixkaryana "-so" | ||
| ADVERB = while doing VERB | Hixkaryana "-toko", "-wawo" (see Derbyshire 1979 for distinction) Esperanto "-ante" | ||
| ADVERB = after doing VERB | Hixkaryana "-txhe" Esperanto "post-~-e" | ||
| VERB = to use NOUN in a typical way | tongue > to lick lips > to kiss | English: zero-derivation with many tool words, a few body part words (e.g. finger) Esperanto: simple "-o" > "-i" verb derivation in many cases, "-umi" in others | |
| NOUN is made from (not of) NOUN | sucrose > caramel coal > diamond | No known examples | |
| NOUN = style or method of doing VERB | fight > martial art write > script, orthography | No known examples | |
| Name of bacteria, virus, parasite etc > name of disease caused by same | amoeba > diarrhea Yersinia pestis > black plague | No known examples |
[edit] List of compounding semantic patterns
| Compounding pattern | Example derivations | Conlang and Natlang parallels |
| HEAD which has quality MODIFIER | young + person => child | bluebird |
| a HEAD originating from MODIFIER | society + language => natlang individual + language => conlang | seawater |
| HEAD for the purpose/benefit of MODIFIER | baby food refugee camp | |
| to do verb HEAD to object MODIFIER | babysit wordcount | |
| an equal or roughly equal mixture of HEAD and MODIFIER materials | sodium + chlorine => salt fear + sadness => despair | |
| mostly HEAD with a little MODIFIER mixed in | carbon + iron => steel salt + water => saline | |
| a HEAD made of MODIFIER material |
[edit] References
- Hixkaryana, Desmond C. Derbyshire. Lingua Descriptive Studies. North-Holland Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1979.
