Tiôtj

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Progress 91%
	Stats Nouns 100% Verbs 88% Adjectives 100% Syntax 95% Words of 1500

Name: Tiôtj Type: Mixed Alignment: Nominative-Accusative Head Direction: Mixed Number of genders: Two Declensions: No Conjugations: Yes Nouns declined according to Case Number Definitiveness Gender Verbs conjugated according to Voice Mood Person Number Tense Aspect

Tiôtj (pronounced [tjo:tʃ]) is an artificial language that user Llyn created few months ago (and he's still creating and improving it). He was inspired by another artificial language that supposed a different evolution of Anglo-Saxon, so he tried to imagine "his own" evolution of Old English. In this evolution Latin influence was scarce at all, while one can appreciate a little Scandinavian influence in the writing system and some borrowings.

The term "tiôtj" comes from Old English "þéodisc", that is an adjective that means "of our people".

Classification

Tiôtj is a Germanic language that is strongly linked to Modern English. This is due to the fact that both English (naturally) and Tiôtj (artificially and a posteriori) descend from Old English.

While English has undergone a strong Latin influence, the same influence on Tiôtj has been very very weak. It can be appreciated the influence of Scandinavian languages on the writing system and just the influence of a language as Welsh in the use of the letter <w> to represent the long vowel [u:].

	Gender	Cases	Numbers	Tenses	Persons	Moods	Voices	Aspects
Verb	No	No	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Nouns	Yes	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	No
Adjectives	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	No
Numbers	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No
Participles	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	No
Adverb	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No
Pronouns	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	No	No	No
Adpositions	Yes	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	No
Article	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	No	No	No	No
Particle	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No

Phonology

Alphabet

Tiôtj alphabet uses letters from Latin alphabet and contains 26 characters:

Letters	Pronunciation	Further informations
a	[a]	short 'a'
â	[ɑ:]	long 'a'
b	[b]	-
c	[k]	used in front of a/â, o/ô, u/w, consonant and in final position
d	[d]	can be realized as both a dental and an alveolar
e	[ɛ]	short 'e', in plural cluster -es it is not pronounced
ê	[e:]	long 'e'
f	[f]	-
g	[g]	-
h	[h]	-
i	[ɪ] / [j]	short 'i' - as approximant it is used between consonant and vowel
j	[j]	it is used at word begin before a vowel, at word end after a vowel and between vowels
k	[k]	used in front of e/ê and i/y
l	[l]	-
m	[m]	-
n	[n]	-
o	[ɔ]	short 'o'
ô	[o:]	long 'o'
p	[p]	-
r	[r]	trilled just as in Italian
s	[s]	always voiceless
t	[t]	can be realized as both a dental and an alveolar
u	[ʊ]	short 'u'
v	[v]	-
w	[u:]	long 'u'
y	[i:]	long 'i'

Consonants

Tiôtj language has the following consonantic phonemes:

	Bilabial	Labiodental	Dental	Alveolar	Postalveolar	Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Stop	p b		(t̪) (d̪)	t d			k g
Affricate					tʃ (dʒ)
Nasal	m	(ɱ)		n			(ŋ)
Fricative		f v		s	ʃ			h
Approximant				r		j	(w)
Lateral approximant				l

In some dialectal pronunciation, the cluster di in front of a vowel can be read as [dʒ], ex.: diôr, animal, can be read [dʒo:r], this pronunciation is considered incorrect though.

The [w] phoneme is found as a glide in words like vouen, "wolves", that is pronounced as ['vɔu̯wɛn].

Vowels

In Tiôtj there are the following vowels:

	Short		Long
	Front	Back	Front	Back
Closed	ɪ	ʊ	i:	u:
Mid-closed			e:	o:
Mid-open	ɛ	ɔ
Open	a			ɑ:

The short a is realized not precisely in the front of mouth, but in the mid between the front and centre of the mouth, whereas the long a is realized in the mid between the back and the centre of mouth.

Diphthongs, digraphs and trigraphs

Tiôtj has got also twenty-one diphthongs, that is clusters of two vowels pronounced with a single emission of air. These diphthongs are:

Diphthongs	Pronunciation
aj - âj	[aɪ] - [ɑ:ɪ]
au - âu	[aʊ] - [ɑ:ʊ]
ej - êj	[ɛɪ] - [e:ɪ]
eu - êu	[ɛʊ] - [e:ʊ]
ja - jâ	j
je - jê	[jɛ] - [je:]
jo - jô	[jɔ] - [jo:]
ju - jw	[jʊ] - [ju:]
oe	o
oj - ôj	[ɔɪ] - [o:ɪ]
ou - ôu	[ɔʊ] - [o:ʊ]

All these diphthongs can have a short or a long vowel in combination with [ɪ] or [ʊ], except for the diphthong <oe>.

Some times one can find these diphthongs written with i and not with j, this depends on the way of use of the letter i (see the alphabet).

Tiôtj has got two digraphs too: <sj>, that is pronounced as [ʃ], and <tj>, that is pronounced as [tʃ]. Also a trigraph exists: <stj> that is pronounced [ʃ] (so <sj> and <stj> have got the same pronunciation).

Even if in the alphabet scheme <sj> and <tj> have not been considered as distinct letters, in dictionaries they are used as out-and-out letters.

The accent

The position of the accent in this language is quite regular, because the stress falls on the root and thus there are few rules to observe:

1) In substantives (and in adjectives and adverbs) the stress falls on the first syllable, even if they are compound nouns formed by prefix + noun/adjective, ex.: lêrstôf (school) is read ['le:rsto:f], though it is formed by lêr- (prefix) + stôf (= place);

2) In verbs the stress falls on the first syllable, but if they are compund verbs formed by prefix + noun, the stress falls on the root, that is after the prefix, ex.: yvatjan (to wake up) is read [i:'vatʃan], though it is formed by y- (prefix) + vatjan (= to wake).

Grammar

Nouns, gender and number

Tiôtj language has got only two genders: common gender (or uter gender) and neuter gender. The previously masculine and feminine words have merged into the uter gender, whereas neuter words have remained neuter, even if in some cases there has been a gender switch.

Nouns can be both singular (denoting just one object) and plural (denoting more than one object). The formation of plural is not always so simple, because there are four ways to form it:

1) Some uter nouns take -es suffix, the <e> in this suffix is generally not pronounced;

2) some uter nouns take -(e)n suffix;

3) some uter nouns take no suffix, some of these undergo a root vowel change too;

4) neuter nouns take no suffix, that is singular and plural forms are identical.

Generally uter nouns ending in -ing or consonant have the first kind of plural, whereas uter nouns ending in -e have the second kind of plural. Some monosyllabic uter nouns ending in consonant experiment a root vowel modification, but they are just few. Endly some uter words have got two kinds of plural: a regular one (in -es or -en) and an irregular one (with no ending at all or/and a root vowel change).

Some nouns with their plural form and meaning

Here is a list of nouns of both genders with their plural form, their gender and their meaning:

Singular	Plural	Gender	Meaning
stân	stânes	uter	stone
vôt	vêt	uter	foot
lond	lond	neuter	land
hioen	hioenes	uter	sky / heaven
sjô	sjôn	uter	shoe
liôt	liôt	neuter	light
lyftj	lyftjen	uter	life
sprâtj	sprâtjen	uter	language
diôr	diôr	neuter	animal
bôc	bêc	uter	book
fryve	fryven	uter	love
friâ	friân	uter	lord
friâstre	friâstren	uter	lady
mann	menn	uter	man
vyf	vyen	uter	woman
vouf	vouen	uter	wolf
hiort	hiort	neuter	heart
hâle	hâlen	uter	head
stôf	stên	uter	place
tyd	tyd	neuter	time
merien	merien	neuter	morning
dag	dages	uter	day
âfning	âfninges	uter	afternoon
cviltyd	cviltyd	neuter	evening
nyt	nyten	uter	night
mône	mônen	uter	moon
atelcund	atelcundes	uter	nobleman
atlestre	atlestren	uter	noblewoman
triô	triô	neuter	tree
hann	hannen	uter	hand
stjor	stjor	neuter	star
jav	javen	uter	eye
lêrend	lêrendes / lêrend	uter	teacher
friônd	friôndes / frynd	uter	friend
viônd	viôndes / vynd	uter	enemy
lynd	lyndes / lynd	uter	lover
hwnn	hwnnes	uter	dog

The nouns ending in -nd are present participles and have two kinds of plural:

1) -es plural, that is quite spread;

2) zero plural, that is quite literary.

Though the nouns in -jônd have got both an -es plural and a zero plural with a vowel change from -jô- to -y-. In this case the second form is the most spread.

The nouns ending in vowel + f lose final f when forming plural form.

Formation of feminine

Distinguishing between nouns that indicate a feminine being and those that indicate a masculine being can be very difficult in a language that has a common gender for both masculine and feminine. However distinguishing is not always so difficult as one could think, because Tiôtj language has a suffix with that the feminine form of a noun can be formed: -estre (pl. -estren).

Usually this suffix causes no changes in root, but some times it is used with a modified root:

• friâ (lord) - friâstre (lady);
• lêrend (teacher) - lêrendstre (female teacher);
• friônd (friend) - fryndstre (female friend);
• viônd (enemy) - vyndstre (female enemy);
• lynd (lover) - lyndstre (female lover).

Articles

Two kinds of article exist in Tiôtj: indefinite and definite article.

The indefinite article has got no plural form and the singular one is the same for all the genders: ân. This article is used to talk about things, facts, beings that are introduces for the first time into the conversation, that is we use the indefinite article to talk about new and not known informations, to talk about undetermined informations.

The definite article is used to talk about well known things, facts, beings instead. These informations are familiar to the speakers, because they are already talking about them, or because they belong to the experiences baggage of the speakers, that is we use the definite article to talk about known informations, to talk about determined informations.

Even if Tiôtj has lost nouns inflection, the definite article has three cases, in addition to the plural forms:

	Uter	Neuter	Plural
Nominative / Accusative	se	tat	tê
Genitive	tes	tes	teir
Dative	têm	têm	tên

The nominative case refers to the subject of a sentence; the accusative case, that is identical to the nominative, refers to the object of a sentence or to the complements that indicate movement; the genitive case refers to possession and the dative case refers to the addressee or to the complements that indicate state. The plural forms are the same for both uter and neuter gender.

Often it is sufficient to use this inflection to express syntactic functions of the elements of a sentence or a phrase, ex.:

• Se sprâtj tes mann - The language of the man;
• Jef het têm friâstre - Give it to the lady.

Adjectives

The adjectives generally precede the noun to whom they refer, but in some case they follow the noun. In Tiôtj the adjectives have two different forms: one for the singular (without ending) and one for the plural (with -e ending). Moreover the form ending in -e is used for both singular and plural when the nouns to whom the adjective refers is preceded by a determiner, that is a possessive, a demonstrative or the definite article, this form of the adjective is called weak form.

If the substantive is not preceded by a determinant (remember that the indefinite article is not a determinant), than it is used the adjective without ending for the singular and that with -e ending for the plural, this form is called strong form.

Adjectives in predicative position, that is after a verb, are never inflected.

Here is a list of adjectives with the two forms:

Strong singular	Strong plural / Weak	Meaning
gôj	gôje	good
ivel	ivele	bad
glâj	glâje	happy
sari	sarie	sad
hiâ	hiâe	tall / high
scam	scame	short
sjên	sjêne	beautiful
lât	lâte	ugly
griat	griate	big / great
litel	lille	little / small
gemel	gemle	old
jong	jonge	young
strong	stronge	strong
vâc	vâke	weak
hât	hâte	hot
tjall	tjalle	cold
jôker	jôcre	terrible
niâ	niâe	near / close
vior	viorre	far / distant

Ex.: ân litel katt - A little cat but se lille katt - The little cat.

Formation of comparative

The higher degree comparative is formed with the suffix -ar (some irregular adjectives form it with -er). The second term of comparation is introduced by tonn and is in the same case of the first, ex.:

• Ân blôsne sjênar tonn ân triô - A flower more beautiful than a tree.

The same degree comparative is formed with the periphrasis sâ + adjective + tonn, ex.:

• Ân blôsne sâ sjên tonn ân triô - A flower as beautiful as a tree.

The lower degree comparative is formed with the periphrasis lass + adjective + tonn, ex.:

• Ân blôsne lass sjên tonn ân triô - A flower less beautiful than a tree.

Adjectives with an irregular higher degree comparative

Some adjectives have got an irregular form of higher degree comparative:

Positive	Strong comparative	Weak comparative
gôj	beter	betre
ivel	vyrs	vyrse
litel	smâler	smâlre
griat	gryter	grytre
gemel	eller	elre
jong	jenger	jengre
hiâ	hyr	hyrre
strong	strenger	strengre
niâ	nyr	nyrre
vior	vyr	vyrre

Irregular higher degree comparatives are used as normal comparatives, ex.:

• Tw jart hyr tonn y (jom) - You are taller than I (am).

Formation of superlative

The superlative degree is formed with the suffix -ast (some irregular adjectives form it with -est). The relative superlative is the same form of the absolute superlative, but it is preceded by the definite article and is generally followed by a limitation, that is expressed with in + dative case, ex.:

• Se sjênast blôsne in têm vêrl - The most beautiful flower in the world.

Adjectives with an irregular superlative

Positive	Strong Superlative	Weak Superlative
gôj	best	beste
ivel	vyrst	vyrste
litel	smâlst	smâlste
griat	grytest	gryteste
gemel	ellest	elste
jong	jengst	jengste
hiâ	hyst	hyste
strong	strengst	strengste
niâ	nyrrest	nyrste
vior	vyrrest	vyrste

Numerals

Numerals don't inflect. Here are the numerals from 0 to 100:

Number	Cardinal	Ordinal
0	naut	-
1	ân	virst
2	tvein	tveid
3	try	trid
4	viôr	viôrt
5	vy	vift
6	sys	syst
7	sjoen	sjoent
8	jât	jâtet
9	nein	neint
10	ten	tent
11	ellioen	ellioent
12	tvelf	tvelft
13	triôtin	triôtint
14	viôrtin	viôrtint
15	viftin	viftint
16	systin	systint
17	sjoentin	sjoentint
18	jâttin	jâttint
19	neintin	neintint
20	tveinti	tveintit
21	tveinti-ân	tveinti-virst
22	tveinti-tvein	tveinti-tveid
30	tryti	trytit
40	viôrti	viôrtit
50	vifti	viftit
60	systi	systit
70	sjoenti	sjoentit
80	jâtti	jâttit
90	neinti	neintit
100	hwdre	hwdret

Units are written linked to the tens with a hyphen, while tens and hundreds are written detached, ex.: 195 hwdre neinti-vy.

From 100 on, numerals are formed with a suffix -wd: 200 tvåwd, 300 trywd, 400 viôrwd, 500 vywd, 600 syswd, 700 sjoenwd, 800 jâtwd, 900 neinwd. This form is the evolution of a former juxtaposition, ex.: try hwd > trywd.

Please note that the numeral 200 is irregular, because an alternative form of 2, that is tvâ, is used. Also the form for hundred in compounds is irregular: hwd, this form is quite archaic nowadays.

The ordinals of the numbers from 200 to 900 are obtained by substituting the final -d for -t, ex.: 200 tvâwd > 200th tvâwt.

A thousand is said twsenn and its ordinal form is twsent. The numbers from 1000 on are expressed with a hypen, ex.: 2000 tvein-twsenn, 5000 vy-twsenn, 9000 nein-twsenn and so on.

The word for a million is miclenn (< O.E. miclung, "greatness" × Ti. twsenn) and it behaves as twsenn.

A thousand million is ân twsenn miclenn. A billion (in the sense of a million million) is byclenn, from the French "bi- + million", that has been substituted for "bi- + miclenn".

Pronouns and kinds of adjectives

Personal pronouns

In Tiôtj personal pronouns inflect according the four cases that have been seen for the definite article: nominative, genitive, dative and accusative.

	1st person
	Singular		Plural
Nominative	y		ve
Genitive	myn		wr
Dative	mê		ws
Accusative	mê		ws
	2nd person
	Singular		Plural
Nominative	tw		je
Genitive	tyn		jeur
Dative	tê		jeu
Accusative	tê		jeu
	3rd person
	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Plural
Nominative	he	hiô	het	hy
Genitive	his	hiôs	his	heras
Dative	him	hir	him	hem
Accusative	hin	hir	het	hy

In a sentence the pronouns in dative case are positioned before of those in accusative case, so prepositions could be omitted, ex.:

• Jef mê het - Give it to me.

When there are a pronoun and a noun, the pronoun always precedes the noun, ex.:

• Jef het têm friâstre - Give it to the lady;
• Jef hir se hwnn - Give her the dog.

Demonstratives

Demonstratives are formed with the three place adverbs hêr (here, "near to the speaker"), têr (there, but in Tiôtj meaning "near to the listener") and jon (yon, but in Tiôtj meaning "far from both speaker and listener"). These pronouns match perfectly the three persons:

Person	Adverb	Demonstrative	Meaning
1st	hêr	se / tat hêr	this one
2nd	têr	se / tat têr	that one (near you)
3rd	jon	se / tat jon	that one (over there)

If a noun is inserted between the definite article and the adverb, the demonstrative functions as an adjective, ex.: Se hêr - This one (here) but Se katt hêr - This cat (here).

As the place adverbs inflect, even the demonstratives "inflect". In fact the place adverbs take three kind of suffix to show if the indicate state, movement towards or movement from a definite place. So it is possible, with verbs denoting movement or state, to indicate this aspect with the demonstrative:

	Hêr	Têr	Jon
State	têm hêr	têm têr	têm jon
Movement from	têm hêns	têm têns	têm jons
Movement to	se / tat hêder	se / tat têder	se / tat jonner

This use of the demonstrative allows us not to use prepositions, ex.:

• Y jom têm hws hêr means "I'm in this house" and there's no need to use the preposition "in";
• Y cume têm hws têns means "I come from that house" without using "af" (= from);
• Y gâ tat hws jonnes means "I go to that house over there" without using "tô" (= to).

But it is true that these three sentences show a particularly refined language, colloquially speaking, these sentences become respectively:

• Y jom in têm hws hêr;
• Y cume af têm hws hêr;
• Y gâ tô tat hws jon.

People tend not to inflect demonstratives (nor place adverbs).

Possessives

Possessives are the same when they're used as both adjectives and pronouns and, while possessive adjectives don't need article before, possessive pronouns need it:

Person	Singular	Plural
y	myn	myne
tw	tyn	tyne
he / het	syn	syne
hiô	hirs	hirs
ve	wr	wre
je	jeur	jeure
hy	heras	heras

Possessives derive from the genitive of the personal pronouns, except for the 3rd masculine and neuter singular. Hirs and Heras only have a single form for both singular and plural. Here are some examples:

• Myn katt > Se myn - My cat > Mine
• Tyn hwnn > Se tyn - Your dog > Yours
• Syn vyf > Se syn - His wife > His
• Hirs mann > Se hirs - Her man > Hers
• Wr diôr > Tat wr - Our animal > Ours
• Jeur friônd > Se jeur - Your friend > Yours
• Heras hiort > Tat heras - Their heart > Theirs

Plural forms:

• Myne kattes > Tê myne - My cats > Mine
• Tyne hwnnes > Tê tyne - Your dogs > Yours
• Syne vyen > Tê syne - His wifes > His
• Hirs menn > Tê hirs - Her men > Hers
• Wre diôr > Tê wre - Our animals > Ours
• Jeure frynd > Tê jeure - Your friends > Yours
• Heras hiort > Tê heras - Their hearts > Theirs

Relatives and interrogatives

Interrogatives, that are used also to make exclamations, function also as relatives:

	Cvâ (Who)	Cvat (What)
Nominative	cvâ	cvat
Genitive	cvas	cvas
Dative	cvam	cvam
Accusative	cvan	cvat
Instrumental	-	cvy

Ex.:

• Cvâ is he? - Who is he?
• Cvat ân sjên hwnn! - What a beautiful dog!
• Cvas is se bôc hêr? - Whose is this book?
• Cvam hafstw isagd het? - Whom have you said it to?
• Se jon is se vyf cvan y friôve - That there is the woman whom I love

Instrumental case cvy corresponds perfectly to English "why", ex.:

Cvy hafstw iscân se mêtning têr? - Why have you made that painting?

Indefinite pronouns and adjectives

Indefinites give us incomplete informations, because they don't define the precise quantity or the identity:

Indefinite	Meaning
âltjen	someone / anyone
âltjet	something / anything
nân	nobody
nâvyt	nothing
âvilc	each
jall	all
ôter / ôer / ô'r	other

The indefinite jall and ôter have got also a plural form: jallen and ôteren / ôeren / ô'ren.

Indefinites can be formed also with the word elles:

• Elles cvâ / elscvâ - Someone else;
• Elles cvat / elscvat - Something else;
• Tê elles - The others.

If these indefinites are used as interrogatives, than elles follows the pronouns:

• Tiarfstw cvat elles? - Do you need something else?
• Cnaut hiô cvan elles? - Does she know someone else?

Adverbs

Usually adverbs in Tiôtj are formed by suffixation: many adverbs derive from adjectives, to that the suffix -litj is added. Some examples:

• glâj > glâilitj (happy - happily);
• sari > sarilitj (sad - sadly);
• griat > griallitj (great - greatly);
• strong > stronglitj (strong - strongly);
• vâc > vâclitj (weak - weakly).

Some adverbs have got suppletive forms, ex.: gôj > jarve; ivel > lyter.

Adverbs can be positioned wherever we want, but it is necessary to remember these rules:

1) adverbs can be positioned between subject and verb, but if this verb is the verb biôn, then the adverb is positioned after the verb;

2) adverbs can be positioned between auxiliary verbs and the taken verbs.

Place adverbs

As it has been seen in the chapter about demonstratives, some place adverbs - hêr, têr and jon - inflect to indicate a state, a movement towards or a movement from. Also the adverb cvêr, "where", inflects:

	cvêr	hêr	têr	jon
State	cvêr	hêr	têr	jon
Movement to	cvêder	hêder	têder	jonner
Movement from	cvêns	hêns	têns	jons

The adverb cvêr/cvêder/cvêns can be used also as a relative, ex.:

• Se stôf hêr is se twn, cvêns y cume - This place is the town where I come from
• Kêrdyt vas se twn, cvêder y scolle gân - Cardiff was the town where I had to go to

The adverb cvêr also has the form cverien, but it is used only in the expression elles cverien, "elsewhere".

When cvêder and cvêns are used as interrogative adverbs, they can be written separately, ex.:

• Cvêns kimstw? or Cvêr kimstw hinnes? - Where do you come from?
• Cvêder gâstw? or Cvêr gâstw hider? - Where are you going to?

Other place adverbs are: âlcvêr, somewhere, and nâlcvêr, nowhere.

Time adverbs

The adverb cvonne, "when", can be used both as interrogative and relative. Other time adverbs are:

• nw - now;
• tann - then;
• yvorn - before;
• eften - after;
• âlcvon - some times;
• jeniaclitj - usually;
• jaltyd - always;
• âfre - ever;
• nâfre - never;
• elles tyd / elstyd - another time.

Frequency can be expressed also with numerals and -nes suffix, ex.:

• ân > ânnes - once;
• tvein > tveinnes - twice;
• try > trynes - thrice;
• viôr > viôrnes - four times;
• vy > vifnes (!) - five times;
• sys > sysnes - six times...

Expressions such as "Eight times a week" are translated as Jâtens 'yl ân vuke.

Manner adverbs

Manner adverbs are created from adjectives with the suffix -litj. The interrogative and relative manner adverb is hw, "how". Some times manner adverbs inflect and have a higher degree comparative and a superlative, ex.:

• glâilitj - glâilitjar - glâilitjast (happily - happilier - happiliest);
• stronglitj - stronglitjar - stronglitjast (strongly - stronglier - strongliest).

Some adverbs have an irregular comparative and superlative form:

• jarve - beter - best;
• lyter - vyrs - vyrst;
• mitjel - mâr - mâst (much - more - most);
• (ân) lit(en) - lass - last (little - less - least).

Both griallitj and mitjel can be used to mean "very", ex.: tw jart griallitj / mitjel sjên - You are very beautiful.

The verb

The verb in Tiôtj language has got six moods: indicative, subjunctive, conditional, imperative, infinitive and participle; various tenses, such as present, past, future, and aspects represented by "tenses" such as present perfect, past perfect and future perfect.

Tiôtj verbs inflect also according to person (1st, 2nd and 3rd) and number (singular and plural).

Verbs always follow the subject, because Tiôtj is a SVO language, that is the subject precedes the verb and the verb precedes the object. In questions or in special constructions, the verb can precede the subject though, and the order becomes VSO.

Present indicative of the verb biôn and of other verbs

The verb biôn, "to be", is the most irregular verb of Tiôtj language. In this scheme there are also three other verbs: lyrnan, "to learn, to read", vennan, "to live, to inhabit" and lytjan, "to like".

Person	Biôn	Lyrnan	Vennan	Lytjan
y	jom	lyrne	venne	lytje
tw	jart	liornst	venst	lytjest
he	is	liornt	vent	lytjet
ve / je / hy	sinn	lyrnat	vennat	lytjat

The suffixes used with regular verbs are:

1st s.	2nd s.	3rd s.	Plural
-e	-(e)st	-(e)t	-at

The plural voices have got all the same suffix, so, to avoid confusion, the subject is always expressed within the sentences.

Present indicative is used to express actions that are happening in the moment or around the moment of speaking, to talk about actions that happen habitually, to talk about past actions when telling a story or talking about history to confere more dramatic power to what is being said, to talk about future events that are considered likely or sure, to express universal truths.

The verb lytjan functions in a different way than in English, ex.: Tw lytjest mê - I like you.

The subject of this verb is the person/thing who/which is liked, whereas the person who likes is expressed in the dative case.

Here are some examples:

• Cvâ jartw? - Who are you?;
• Cvâ is he? - Who is he?;
• Cvêr venstw? - Where do you live?;
• Y lyrne ân bôc - I read a book;
• Lytjet het tê? - Do you like it?;
• Lytje y tê? - Do you like me?;
• Y jom ân mann - I am a man;
• Tw jart ân vyf - You are a woman;
• Hy sinn diôr - They are animals;
• Y venne hêr - I live here;
• Hiô vent jon - She lives over there.

Please note that when the verb precedes the 2nd person singular, the pronouns merges with the verb, ex.: jart tw > jartw; liornst tw > liornstw; venst tw > venstw, and so on.

Present indicative of irregular verbs

-ian verbs

If it is observed the conjugation of the verb lyrnan, it will be seen that in the 2nd and the 3rd person singular the root undergoes a vowel change: -y- becomes -io-. This irregularity is found in all the so called -ian verbs, that is verbs that had in Anglo-Saxon a conjugation with -i- in some endings and without it in others (such as the 2nd and the 3rd person singular of present indicative). This -i- has disappeared in the endings, but before has changed the root vowel; not all the vowels undergo this change though: only o/ô and u/w undergo this change and become respectively e/ê and i/y, both the diphthongs io/iô become y instead.

Here are the verbs lyrnan, behêvan, "to be necessary", kinnan, "to experience":

Person	Lyrnan	Behêvan	Kinnan
y	lyrne	behêve	kinne
tw	liornst	behôfst	cunst
he	liornt	behôft	cunt
ve / je / hy	lyrnat	behêvat	kinnat

The answer to this irregularity comes from Old English:

Old English	Tiôtj	Old English	Tiôtj	Old English	Tiôtj
leornian	lyrnan	behōfian	behêvan	cunnian	kinnan
leornast	liornst	behōfast	behôfst	cunnast	cunst
leornaþ	liornt	behōfaþ	behôft	cunnaþ	cunt
leorniaþ	lyrnat	behōfiaþ	behêvat	cunniaþ	kinnat

When the root vowel is an a, an e or an i, this vowel doesn't experience any change, in this case the -i- appears in the endings of the 1st person singular, of the plurals and of the infinitive, but doesn't in those of the 2nd and the 3rd person singular. An example is the verb hatian, "to hate":

Person	Hatian
y	hatie
tw	hâst (< hatst)
he	hât (< hatt)
ve / je / hy	hatiat

The present indicative of the "specialized verbs"

During the evolution from Anglo-Saxon, many verbs specialized their meaning, thus these verbs are called specialized verbs and they are all irregular verbs.

Here is the present indicative of the verbs cnâvan and vytan, both "to know", sêgan and cvetan, both "to say", dôn and scân, both "to do":

Person	Cnâvan	Vytan	Sêgan	Cvetan	Dôn	Scân
y	cnâve	vât	sêge	cvete	dô	scâ
tw	cnaust	vâst	sagst	cvêst	dêst	scafst
he	cnaut	vât	sagt	cvêt	dêt	scaft
ve / je / hy	cnâvat	vyton	sêgat	cvetat	dôt	scât

The verb cnâvan means "to know someone", for the first time or not it's the same, whereas vytan means "to know something". The verbs sêgan and cvetan are almost always interchangeable and mean "to say, to tell", the second is the most used though. Cvetan means also "to assert, to argue, to allude", while sêgan can mean also "to pronounce".

Dôn and scân both mean "to do", but they are different just like to do and to make in English. The verb scân means "to create material things", it is used in such expressions as: scân tat bed, "to make the bed", scân ân clâvie, "to make a sandwich", but also scân se sâmvys, "to act dumb". Dôn refers to a mental or immaterial activity, such as dôn ân encvil, "to do a research", dôn ân scrwting, "to do an exam", but also dôn ân minid, "to make a gesture".

Other specialized verbs are:

Person	Âvan	Hâban	Villan	Mavan	Cunnan	Môtan
y	âg	hâbe	vill	mag	conn	môt
tw	âst	hafst	vilt	miâst	const	môst
he	âg	haft	vill	mag	conn	môt
ve / je / hy	âvon	hâbat	villat	mavon	cunnon	môton

Both âvan and hâban mean "to have", but the former is used to mean "to owe" and indicates a rather material possession, even if it can be used also to indicate an immaterial possession, such as feelings, ideas, and so forth, moreover âvan cannot ever be used as auxiliary verb. Hâban indicates an immaterial possession, but it is not compulsory and it can indicate also a material possession, such as things, animals, etc. The greatest difference between âvan and hâban is that the latter is the only one that can function as auxiliary.

Villan and mavan both have the meaning of "to want, to desire", but the former is more peremptory in his meaning and has a nuance of pretension. Mavan is closer to the English to wish and is considered more polite. Note the expressions y vill tê, "I love you, I hanker after you" (it has a carnal nuance) and y mag tê, "I like you, I heart you".

Cunnan and môtan are quite differentiated, because the former means "can, to be able to do something", and the latter means "to be allowed to do something, to have the permission to do something".

Two very important specialized verbs are gân and varan. They both mean "to go", but the first is used when the act of going is done on foot; varan is used when the act of going is done by a mean of transport, such as bike, car, train, and so forth.

Person	Gân	Varan
y	gâ	vare
tw	gâst	verst
he	gât	vert
ve / je / hy	gât	varat

Ex.:

• Y gâ tô se lêrstôf by vêt - I go to school on foot;
• Tw verst tô se lêrstôf by tvicviôl - You go to school by bike.

Past indicative

This tense is used to talk about events that happened in the past and that are considered as totally concluded and irrelated to the present. Generally it is used with time adverbs that indicate this irrelation, such as jestrendag, yesterday, se late vuke / mônt / jâr, the last week / month / year, het scaft ân vuke / mônt / jâr, a week / month / year ago, and so on.

The past indicative of regular verbs is formed with the suffixes -de for the singular persons and -don for the plural ones:

Person	Biôn	Lyrnan	Vennan	Lytjan
y	vas	liornde	vende	lytjede
tw	vêre	liornde	vende	lytjede
he	vas	liornde	vende	lytjede
ve / je / hy	vêron	liorndon	vendon	lytjedon

The verb biôn is irregular in its past tense, the verb lyrnan shows its real root instead. As it can be seen in the verb biôn, the 2nd person singular of past tense has got the root of the plural forms, but ends in -e and not in -on. It is important to keep this in mind, because this is true for all the irregular verbs.

It is to be observed that regular verbs ending with a vowel and -c, -f, -p, -s, -t modify the desinence -de/-don into -te/-ton, ex.: Y breite (= I change) > Y breitte (= I changed).

Past indicative of irregular verbs

-ian verbs

As for the present, the -ian verbs show a modified vowel root in this tense. While in the present indicative only the 2nd and the 3rd singular person show this change, in the past indicative all the verbal voices show this mutation.

Here are the verbs lyrnan, behêvan and kinnan:

Person	Lyrnan	Behêvan	Kinnan
y	liornde	behôfte	cunde
tw	liornde	behôfte	cunde
he	liornde	behôfte	cunde
ve / je / hy	liorndon	behôfton	cundon

The past indicative of the "specialized verbs"

All the specialized verbs have an irregular past indicative:

Person	Cnâvan	Vytan	Sêgan	Cvetan	Dôn	Scân
y	cniôv	visse	sagde	cvat	dide	sjôf
tw	cniôve	viste	sagde	cvâde	dide	scôve
he	cniôv	visse	sagde	cvat	dide	sjôf
ve / je / hy	cniôvon	viston	sagdon	cvâdon	didon	scôvon

Person	Âvan	Hâban	Villan	Mavan	Cunnan	Môtan
y	âte	hafte	volle	myte	cwte	môste
tw	âte	hafte	volle	myte	cwte	môste
he	âte	hafte	volle	myte	cwte	môste
ve / je / hy	âton	hafton	vollon	myton	cwton	môston

Person	Gân	Varan
y	jôde	vôr
tw	jôde	vôre
he	jôde	vôr
ve / je / hy	jôdon	vôron

The past indicative of the "strong verbs"

The specialized verbs are not the only irregular verbs, because there is another big group of verbs that can have or not an irregular 2nd and 3rd person singular of present indicative, however they always have an irregular past indicative. This verbs are called strong verbs to be distinguished from the regular verbs, called also weak verbs, and from the specialized verbs.

These strong verbs can be divided into seven classes, with these properties:

Classes	Infinitive	Present 2nd / 3rd p.s.	1st past form	2nd past form
I	y	y	â	i
II	iô / w	y / w	iâ	u
V	e	e	a	â
VI	a	e	ô	ô
VII	V	V	ê / iô	ê / iô

In the first column can be seen the normal root vowel, used in infinitive and in present indicative (except for 2nd and 3rd person singular); the second column refers to root vowel the 2nd and the 3rd person singular of the present indicative; the third column refers to the root vowel of the 1st and 3rd person singular of the past, the fourth to the root vowel of the 2nd person singular and of the plural forms of the past.

Here are some examples of verbs of I, II, V, VI and VII class:

• I: bytan - byst - bât - bite (to bite - you bite - I bit - you bit);
• II: biôvan - byst - biâg - buve (to bid - you bid - I bade - you bade);
• V: jevan - jefst - jaf - jâve (to give - you give - I gave - you gave);
• VI: varan - verst - vôr - vôre (to go - you go - I went - you went);
• VII: lâtan - lâst - lêt - lête (to let - you let - I let - you let).

The situation is more complicated for verbs of III and IV class.

The IV class has got the following options:

Options	Infinitive	Present 2nd / 3rd p.s.	Past singular	Past plural
1st	e	i	e / a	ê / â
2nd	i	i	a	ô

The 1st option is chosen with verbs whose root vowel is followed by an r or l, the 2nd one is used with verbs whose root vowel is followed by an m or n, ex.:

• beran - birst - ber - bêre (to bear - you bear - I bore - you bore);
• helan - hilst - hal - hâle (to hide - you hide - I hid - you hid);
• niman - nimst - nam - nôme (to take - you take - I took - you took).

The III class is the most complicated, because there are many options and they cannot be described all here, the most spread are:

Option	Infinitive	Present 2nd / 3rd p.s.	Past singular	Past plural
1st	io	y	ia	u
2nd	e	i	ia	u
3rd	i	i	o	u

Ex.:

• viortan - vyrst - viart - vurre (to become - you become - I became - you became);
• helpan - hilpst - hialp - hulpe (to help - you help - I helped - you helped);
• drincan - drincst - dronc - drunke (to drink - you drink - I drank - you drank).

The particularity of the "v-verbs"

As it has been seen, the 1st person singolar of the past indicative of the verb biôvan is y biâg (and NOT **y biâf), whereas the same person of the same tense of the verb jevan is y jaf (and NOT **y jag). This is the particularity of the so called v-verbs, that is verbs whose roots ends in -v in the infinitive form. If that v will turn into an f or into a g depends on the verb itself. This particularity is found not only in the past tense, but also in the 2nd and 3rd person of the present tense. The following example shows the verbs biôvan, jevan and syvan (to fall down, to descend)

Person	Biôvan	Jevan	Syvan
y	biôve	jeve	syve
tw	byst (!)	jefst (!)	sygst (!)
he	byt (!)	jeft (!)	sygt (!)
ve / je / hy	biôvat	jevat	syvat

These verbs show different mutations of v: it can disappear (biôvan), it can be replaced with f or it can be replaced with g. Why does the v undergo these changes? Is there a rule to understand it? The answer to these questions is once again the Old English:

Old English	Tiôtj	Old English	Tiôtj	Old English	Tiôtj
bēode	biôve	giefe	jeve	sīge	syve
bīetst	byst	giefst	jefst	sīgst	sygst
bīett	byt	gieft	jeft	sīgt	sygt
bēodaþ	biôvat	giefaþ	jevat	sīgaþ	syvat

As it has been shown, three letters - d, f, and g - merged into Tiôtj "v" in intervocalic position, when the conjugation of the verb change this parameter, the letters evolve differently: the d disappears in front of -st and -t of the 2nd and the 3rd person singular; the f remains f, and the g remains g. Things change again in the past tense:

Old English	Tiôtj	Old English	Tiôtj	Old English	Tiôtj
bēad	biâg	geaf	jaf	sāg	sâg
bude	buve	gēafe	jâve	sige	sive
bēad	biâg	geaf	jaf	sāg	sâg
budon	buvon	gēafon	jâvon	sigon	sivon

While the change v > f has been preserved, the changes v > d and v > g have merged into the only change v > g. Probably this is due to misinterpretation.

The present perfect and the past participle

To express an action that has happened in a period of time that is not completely finished, such as hiôde, today, se vuke hêr, this week, se mônt hêr, this month, tat jâr hêr, this year, Tiôtj uses another tense of indicative: the present perfect. This tense is used also to talk about happenings that haven't got a precise temporal localization or that have had a quantifiable effect on the present reality.

The present perfect is formed with the present of either the verb biôn or hâban and the past participle of the verb that you need to conjugate. Usually the verb biôn is used with verbs that indicate movement or change, such as viassan, "to grow up", stiorvan, "to die", viortan, "to become", breitan, "to change, to turn oneself into", and so forth. The verb hâban is used with other verbs instead:

Person	Biôn	Lyrnan	Vennan	Lytjan
y	jom ibiôn	hâbe iliornd	hâbe ivend	hâbe ilytjed
tw	jart ibiôn	hafst iliornd	hafst ivend	hafst ilytjed
he	is ibiôn	haft iliornd	haft ivend	haft ilytjed
ve / je / hy	sinn ibiôn	hâbat iliornd	hâbat ivend	hâbat ilytjed

In colloquial speaking, the present tense of the auxiliary is often omitted, ex.: Hy hâbat ifriôd ws and Hy ifriôd ws both mean "They have loved us". This omission cannot be used with other compound tenses such as past perfect or future perfect.

As it can be seen, the past participle of the verbs is formed with a circumfix i--(e)d for the regular verbs, in this case, in spite of the vocalic change, the -ian verbs are considered to be weak, and the past participle has got the same vowel of the past indicative.

However in the past participle of the compound verbs, the i- prefix is not used, ex.: wtgân, go out > wtgân; onhipan > onhuped (it is a -ian verb).

The past participle can be used also as adjective, in this case it inflects and has got both weak and strong declension. Moreover when the past participle is used as adjective, it loses its i- and takes a be- prefix, ex.:

• Ân befriôd vyf - A beloved woman;
• Se becnâvene mann - The known man.

The past participle of irregular verbs

The irregular verbs form the past participle with the circumfix i--(e)n and undergo a root vowel change, but this vowel is almost always different than the one of the past indicative. Once again it can be distinguished among seven classes. Here is a table with the vowel of the infinitive, that of the 2nd person singular of present tense, those of the first past form and the second past form, and that of the past participle:

Class	Infinitive	2nd p.s. present	1st p.s. past	2nd p.s. past	Past participle
I	y	y	â	i	i
II	iô / w	y / w	iâ	u	o
V	e	e	a	â	e
VI	a	e	ô	ô	a
VII	V	V	ê / iô	ê / iô	V

The voices that have been analyzed in this scheme together form the so called paradigm. The paradigm is a list of specific verbal voices that together allow to identify every verb and to form all the other voices of it, it is formed by:

• 1st voice: the infinitive voice;
• 2nd voice: the 2nd person singular of the present indicative;
• 3rd voice: the 1st person singular of the past indicative;
• 4th voice: the 2nd person singular of the past indicative;
• 5th voice: the past participle.

It follows a list of the paradigms of verbs of I, II, V, VI, and VII class:

Class	1st voice	2nd voice	3rd voice	4th voice	5th voice
I	bytan	byst	bât	bite	ibiten
II	biôvan	byst	biâg	buve	ibioven
V	jevan	jefst	jaf	jâve	ijeven
VI	varan	verst	vôr	vôre	ivaren
VII	lâtan	lâst	lêt	lête	ilâten

The IV class has got two different options:

Options	1st voice	2nd voice	3rd voice	4th voice	5th voice
1st	e	i	e / a	ê / â	o
2nd	i	i	a	ô	u

Some paradigms of verbs of the IV class:

• beran - birst - ber - bêre - iboren;
• helan - hilst - hal - hâle - iholen;
• niman - nimst - nam - nôme - inumen.

The III class is once again the most complicated to schematize, because there are too many options. Here are the most spread:

Options	1st voice	2nd voice	3rd voice	4th voice	5th voice
1st	io	y	ia	u	o
2nd	e	i	ia	u	o
3rd	i	i	o	u	u

Some examples:

• viortan - vyrst - viart - vurre - ivorren;
• helpan - hilpst - hialp - hulpe - iholpen;
• drincan - drincst - dronc - drunke - idrunken.

Some paradigms

Here are some paradigms of very important verbs, their auxiliary verb for compound tenses and their meaning:

1st voice	2nd voice	3rd voice	4th voice	5th voice	Aux	Meaning
hâban	hafst	hafte	hafte	ihaft	hâban	to have
biôn	jart	vas	vêre	ibiôn	biôn	to be
dôn	dêst	dide	dide	idôn	hâban	to do
gân	gâst	jôde	jôde	igân	biôn	to go
varan	verst	vôr	vôron	ivaren	biôn	to go
friôvan	friôst	friôde	friôde	ifriôd	hâban	to love
siôn	sêst	siâ	sâve	iseven	hâban	to see
lêgan	lecst	lecte	lecte	ilêgen	biôn	to lay
môtan	môst	môste	môste	imôten	hâban	to be allowed to
cuman	kimst	côm	côme	icumen	biôn	to come
cunnan	const	cwte	cwte	icunnen	hâban	can
sêgan	sagst	sagde	sagde	isagd	hâban	to say
cvetan	cvêst	cvat	cvâde	icvên	hâban	to tell
vytan	vâst	visse	viste	iviten	hâban	to know
cnâvan	cnaust	cniôv	cniôve	icnâven	hâban	to know
villan	vilt	volle	volle	ivillen	hâban	to want
sculan	sjalt	scolle	scolle	isculen	hâban	must, to have to
stiorvan	styrfst	stiarf	sturve	istorven	biôn	to die
scân	scafst	sjôf	scôve	iscân	hâban	to make
etan	êst	at	âte	ieten	hâban	to eat
mavan	miâst	myte	myte	imaven	hâban	to wish

Present participle

There is also a present participle form. This tense indicates a subject that does usually the action expressed by the verb or that is doing this action just now. Often with this tense the "agentive" is expressed, so, for example, the English singer corresponds to both singer and singend, but the latter is the most spread, because the former is considered as archaic.

This verbal form can be used as a substantive or an adjective, but, as for the past participle used in this way, it inflects like substantives and adjectives.

The suffix of present participle is -(e)nd and it can have a plural form (-end / -endes and some irregular with a vowel change + -nd). Here are some participles:

Infinitive	Present Participle	Meaning of the participle
hâban	hâbend	one who has, owner
biôn	biônd	one who is
dôn	dônd	doer
gân	gând	goer
varan	varend	goer
friôvan	friôvend	lover, one who loves
siôn	siônd	seer; one who sees
lêgan	lêgend	one who lays
lyrnan	lyrnend	learner, reader
môtan	môtend	one who is allowed to
cuman	cumend	"comer", one who comes
cunnan	cunnend	one who can
sêgan	sêgend	one who says
cvetan	cvetend	one who tells
vytan	vytend	one who knows
cnâvan	cnâvend	one who knows
villan	villend	one who wants
sculan	sculend	one who must
stiorvan	stiorvend	one who is dying
vennan	vennend	one who lives, inhabitant
scân	scând	one who makes, maker
etan	etend	one who eats, eater
lytjan	lytjend	one who is liked
niman	nimend	one who takes, taker
mavan	mavend	one who wish
lêran (to teach)	lêrend	teacher, one who teaches

Some verbs had an older and archaic participle that has become a noun, and these verbs have developed later another form for the participle, ex.: friôvan > friônd (friend, noun) > friôvend (lover, participle).

There are also substantives that are a present participle of an obsolete and no more used verb, ex.: viônd, enemy, is a participle of the archaic verb viôvan, to hate, that has been substituted with hatian; lynd, lover, is a participle of the archaic verb lyan (that corresponds to English to love), to "carnally" desire.

Participles can add -es or zero suffix to form the plural form, however the participles that end in -iônd can add the suffix -es or change -iô- with -y-, ex.: lêrend > lêrend/es; siônd > siôndes/synd.

The preterite-present verbs

Some irregular verbs, such as vytan, belong to the group of the so called preterite-present verbs: these verbs behave in the present like they inflect to express past tense, but they have a present meaning though. The particularity of these verbs is that the 2nd person singular has retained the vocalism of the singular forms (whereas in the past of the irregular verbs, the 2nd person singular has the same vocalism of the plural form) and the ending -st. This is true for all the preterite-present verbs.

Here is the present indicative of some useful preterite-present verbs:

Person	Duvan (to succeed)	Munan (to remember)	Turvan (to need)	Sculan (must)	Durran (to dare)
y	diâg	mon	tiarf	sjal	diarr
tw	diâgst	monst	tiarfst	sjalt	diarst
he	diâg	mon	tiarf	sjal	diarr
ve / je / hy	duvon	munon	turvon	sjolon	durron

The past indicative of these verbs:

Person	Duvan	Munan	Turvan	Sculan	Durran
y	dôte	munde	torfte	scolle	dorste
tw	dôte	munde	torfte	scolle	dorste
he	dôte	munde	torfte	scolle	dorste
ve / je / hy	dôton	mundon	torfton	scollon	dorston

The past participle is:

Duvan	Munan	Turvan	Sculan	Durran
iduven	imunen	iturven	isculen	idurren

The future

In Tiôtj the future is a perifrastic form that is formed with the present of the verb sculan and the infinitive of the verb:

Person	Biôn	Lyrnan	Vennan	Lytjan
y	sjal biôn	sjal lyrnan	sjal vennan	sjal lytjan
tw	sjalt biôn	sjalt lyrnan	sjalt vennan	sjalt lytjan
he	sjal biôn	sjal lyrnan	sjal vennan	sjal lytjan
ve / je / hy	sjolon biôn	sjolon lyrnan	sjolon vennan	sjolon lytjan

The future of the verb sculan is formed with the perifrastic construction: sculan + biôn inyved tô + infinitive, ex.: Tw sjalt inyved tô dôn het - You will have to do it. Very often this construction is avoided and sculan is simply used in its present tense: Yw sjalt dôn het - You have to do it.

The construction of the future can be used also with an imperative meaning, in this case the verb precedes the subject, ex.: Sjaltw dôn het! - Do it! (Yes, you will do it!).

The past perfect and the future perfect

If the same construction of the present perfect is used with the auxiliary inflected to past or future, then two new tenses are formed: the past perfect and the future perfect. The former is used to talk about past happenings that ended before another past happening; the latter is used to talk about future happenings that will end before another future happening still going, ex.:

• Y hafte ieten ond y jôde wt - I had eaten and [then] I went out;
• Cvonne tw sjalt onhipan, y sjal hâban ijonded - As you'll return, I will have finished.

Present subjunctive

Unlike English, present subjunctive is regularly used in Tiôtj. Even if this tense is present, it is used to report words said by others or ideas and quotations that aren't of the one who speaks, not only if the principal verb is in the present, but also if the principal verb is in the past.

Moreover this tense is used to express exhortation with the 1st person plural and the 3rd person singular and plural (that haven't got an imperative form).

Here is the present subjunctive of some verbs:

Person	Biôn	Lyrnan	Vennan	Lytjan
y	sy	lyrne	venne	lytje
tw	syst	lyrnest	vennest	lytjest
he	sy	lyrne	venne	lytje
ve / je / hy	synne	lyrnen	vennen	lytjen

So in regular verbs this tense is formed with the infinitive form + the endings: -e, -est, -e, -en, that is the 1st and the 3rd person singular are identical.

Is has already been said that the present subjunctive is used to report words said by others, even if this words were said in the past, ex.:

• He says that Mary loves him - He cvêt (at) Mary friôve hin.
• He said that Mary loved him - He cvat (at) Mary friôve hin.

Irregular verbs have got a regular present subjunctive, except for the irregular verbs with a root vowel u, in this case the u becomes i:

Person	Cnâvan	Vytan	Sêgan	Cvetan	Dôn	Scân
y	cnâve	vyte	sêge	cvete	dô	scâ
tw	cnâvest	vytest	sêgest	cvetest	dôst	scâst
he	cnâve	vyte	sêge	cvete	dô	scâ
ve / je / hy	cnâven	vyten	sêgen	cveten	dôn	scân

Person	Âvan	Hâban	Villan	Mavan	Cunnan	Môtan
y	âve	hâbe	ville	mave	kinne	môte
tw	âvest	hâbest	villest	mavest	kinnest	môtest
he	âve	hâbe	ville	mave	kinne	môte
ve / je / hy	âven	hâben	villen	maven	kinnen	môten

Person	Duvan	Munan	Turvan	Sculan	Durran
y	dive	mine	tirve	sjile	dirre
tw	divest	minest	tirvest	sjilest	dirrest
he	dive	mine	tirve	sjile	dirre
ve / je / hy	diven	minen	tirven	sjilen	dirren

Past subjunctive

The past tense of subjunctive is used also to quote words, ideas, and so forth, but only if the verb of the subordinate is not in the same tense of the principal verb, and exactly if the action of the verb of the subordinate has happened before of the action expressed by the principal verb, ex.:

• He says that Mary loved him - He cvêt (at) Mary friôde hin.
• He said that Mary had loved him - He cvat (at) Mary friôde hin.

This tense is used also to express the verb of the subordinate clause in the conditional clause (protasis).

Here is the past subjunctive of some verbs:

Person	Biôn	Lyrnan	Vennan	Lytjan
y	vêre	lyrnde	vende	lytjede
tw	vêre	lyrnde	vende	lytjede
he	vêre	lyrnde	vende	lytjede
ve / je / hy	vêren	lyrnden	venden	lytjeden

Person	Cnâvan	Vytan	Sêgan	Cvetan	Dôn	Scân
y	cnyve	viste	sagde	cvâde	dide	sjêve
tw	cnyve	viste	sagde	cvâde	dide	sjêve
he	cnyve	viste	sagde	cvâde	dide	sjêve
ve / je / hy	cnyven	visten	sagden	cvâden	diden	sjêven

Person	Âvan	Hâban	Villan	Mavan	Cunnan	Môtan
y	âte	hafte	velle	myte	kyte	mêste
tw	âte	hafte	velle	myte	kyte	mêste
he	âte	hafte	velle	myte	kyte	mêste
ve / je / hy	âten	haften	vellen	myten	kyten	mêste

Person	Duvan	Munan	Turvan	Sculan	Durran
y	dête	minde	terfte	sjelle	derste
tw	dête	minde	terfte	sjelle	derste
he	dête	minde	terfte	sjelle	derste
ve / je / hy	dêten	minden	terften	sjellen	dersten

The form of the past subjunctive is the same of the 2nd person singular of the past indicative, the singular forms are identical, the plural forms add an -n. If the root vowel of the past indicative is iô/io, ô/o or w/u, this changes and these vowels become respectively y, ê/e and y/i.

The imperative and the exhortation form

The imperative mood has got only the present tense and the 2nd person (both singular and plural), the other persons use the subjunctive forms instead.

The 2nd person singular has got the same form of the present of indicative, but without the ending -st, moreover the verbs with root vowel change a > e, have got the a in the root of the imperative form.

The 2nd person plural is the same of the present of indicative, but without the ending -a, when it can be dropped down without pronunciation problems.

Some verbs as biôn have got an irregular imperative form.

Person	Biôn	Lyrnan	Vennan	Lytjan
tw	ves	liorn	venn	lytj
je	vest	lyrnt	vent	lytjat

Person	Cnâvan	Vytan	Sêgan	Cvetan	Dôn	Scân
tw	cnâf	vit	sag	cvet	dô	scâ
je	cnâft	vitat	sêgt	cvetat	dôt	scât

Person	Âvan	Hâban	Villan	Mavan	Cunnan	Môtan
tw	âg	haf	vill	mag	cunn	môt
je	âgt	hâbt	vilt	magt	cunt	môtat

Person	Duvan	Munan	Turvan	Sculan	Durran
tw	dug	mun	turf	scul	durr
je	dugt	munt	turft	scult	durt

It can be used also the future of indicative to emphasize orders, compare:

• Dô (tw) het! - Do it!

• Sjaltw dôn het! - You will do it!

In this case the future is used with the inversion of verb and subject: tw sjalt > sjalt tw > sjaltw.

To be more polite it can be used the construction of the verb sculan or of the verb turvan. Usually this pattern is used with the 2nd person plural to underline the politeness, but it is often used with the 2nd person singular too:

• Tw sjalt dôn het. / Tw tiarfst dôn het. - You have to do it. / You need to do it.

• Je sjolon dôn het. / Je turvon dôn het. - You should do it.

The use of the future of indicative and of the present of subjunctive with the other persons are called exhortation form. Some examples with other persons:

• Gân ve tô se lêrstôf. - Let's go to the school.

• Ete hiô ân clâvie. - She eat a sandwich.

In both these constructions the verb precedes the subject.