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| [[]] ' | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Type | |||
| agglutinative | |||
| Alignment | |||
| nominative-accusative | |||
| Head direction | |||
| head-final | |||
| Tonal | |||
| No | |||
| Declensions | |||
| Yes | |||
| Conjugations | |||
| Yes | |||
| Genders | |||
| No | |||
| Nouns decline according to... | |||
| Case | Number | ||
| Definiteness | Gender | ||
| Verbs conjugate according to... | |||
| Voice | Mood | ||
| Person | Number | ||
| Tense | Aspect | ||
General information
Yékis /ˈjɛcɪs/ is spoken by approximately 3 million people in the south-central region of the Aralát Islands on the planet Ejnül ca. 10,000 CE. It is the primary language of the city of Bezne (population 800,000), which serves as the seat of planetary government. In Yékis, this political entity is referred to as Þanal'tar (English: Thalatria).
Ejnül was settled roughly 6,000 years ago ca. 4000 CE by several thousand colonists, the ancestors of whom were mostly from the New Mexico and Colorado regions on earth, making Yékis, as well as every other language spoken on Ejnül, a descendant of western North American English dialects. At this time, colonies were being established on hundreds of planets. Contact with Earth was lost shortly thereafter, and the colony has developed in isolation ever since, including an era of technological stagnation from which the world has only within the past few centuries begun to recover.
Ejnül is the second (and only inhabited) planet in orbit of a K class main sequence star nearly 100 light years distant from Earth. Its inhabitants now number over 39 million, the majority of whom live in the Aralát Islands and on the adjacent mainland (Enjül's sole continental landmass). Yékis is closely related to the Ohóc language spoken just to its north, and to the Continental Yékis language spoken on the mainland, just across a small sea to the west. All of the above are descended from the Cuwaya language, also known as "Classical Yékis", which was spoken in the central Aralát Islands and adjacent mainland ca. 8000 CE. The more distantly related Vača languages are spoken in the north of the island chain, and Mlozgá at the southern tip.
Phonology
Consonants
|
Plain Bilabial |
Palatalized Bilabial |
Plain Alveolar |
Palatalized Alveolar |
Palato- Alveolar |
Palatal |
Plain Velar |
Labialized Velar | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | m | mʲ | n | ɲ | ŋ | |||
| Plosive | p b | pʲ bʲ | t d | tʲ dʲ | c ɟ | k ɡ | kʷ ɡʷ | |
| Fricative | ɸ | ɸʲ | s | sʲ | ʃ | ç | x | xʷ |
| Affricate | ts dz | tʃ dʒ | ||||||
| Approximant | j | w | ||||||
| Flap or tap | ɾ | ɾʲ | ||||||
| Lateral fric. | ɬ ɮ | ɬʲ ɮʲ |
The voiced stops tend to be prenasalized in utterance-initial, and sometimes word-inital, position.
Vowels
Length is phonemic in initial syllables. There are also nasal phonemes: /ã/, /ɛ̃/, /œ̃/, /ɔ̃/. Nasals are always short.
Vowel harmony:
Front vowels and non-front vowels (hereafter referred to simply as back vowels) cannot co-occur in the same word, except in compounds. Suffixes and grammatical endings alternate accordingly.
| Front | Central | Back | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Near-close | ɪ ʏ | ɯ ʊ | |
| Close-mid | |||
| Open-mid | ɛ œ | ɔ | |
| Open | a |
Alphabet and Orthography
Official Latin and Cyrillic orthographies for Yékis coexist. Yékis has a relatively deep orthography in both scripts, but the correct pronunciation is almost always capable of being discerned through the written form.
The alphabet for the Latin orthography is as follows:
Aa Áá Bb Cc Dd Ðð Ee Éé Ff Gg Hh Ii Íí Jj Kk Ll Mm Nn Oo Óó Pp Qq Rr Ss Tt Uu Úú (Vv) Ww Xx Yy Zz Þþ Ïï Öö Ö'ö' Üü.
V occurs only in words of foreign origin. Long vowels are written double.
Latin orthography:
a - /a/
á - /ã/, /a/ (This historically nasalized vowel has become denasalized in certain environments, merging with the plain short vowel: immediately preceding a voiceless stop or affricate, immediately preceding a consonant cluster, or in the first of two consecutive syllables containing a nasal vowel. However, denasalization does not occur in these enviroments when the nasal vowel in question is itself adjacent to (immediately preceding or following) a nasal consonant, or voiced stop (since orthographic voiced stops have become nasal stops when adjacent to nasalized vowels).
aa - /aː/
b - /b/, /m/, /p/ (/m/ when adjacent to nasal vowel, /p/ immediately preceding a voiceless consonant, only if not preceded by a nasal vowel, in which case [m̥] results)
c - /ts/, /dz/ (/dz/ immediately preceding a voiced consonant. /dz/ has a tendency to be deaffricated before nasals, nasalized vowels, and /ɾ/)
d - /d/, /n/, /t/ (/n/ when adjacent to nasal vowel, /t/ immediately preceding a voiceless consonant, only if not preceded by a nasal vowel, in which case [n̥] results)
ð - /ɮ/, /ɬ/ (/ɬ/ when immediately preceding a voiceless consonant. Many, if not most, speakers have devoiced /ɮ/, except before a voiced consonant, effectively merging this sound with /ɬ/. For these speakers Yékis has exclusively voiceless fricative phonemes).
e - /ɛ/
é - /ɛ̃/, /ɛ/ (This historically nasalized vowel has been denasalized in certain environments. See á).
ee - /ɛː/
f - /ɸ/, [β] ([β] when immediately preceding a voiced consonant)
g - /g/, /ŋ/, /k/ (in front vowel words: /ŋ/ when adjacent to nasal vowel, /k/ immediately preceding a voiceless consonant, only if not preceded by a nasal vowel, in which case [ŋ̥] results. In back vowel words, the uvular equivalents of the above sounds are allophonically present).
h - /x/, [ɣ] (in front vowel words: [ɣ] when immediately preceding a voiced consonant. In back vowel words, the uvular equivalents of the above sounds are allophonically present)
i - /ɪ/
ii - /ɪ:/
j - /dʒ/, /tʃ/ (/tʃ/ when immediately preceding a voiceless consonant. /dʒ/ has a tendency to be deaffricated before nasals, nasalized vowels, and /ɾ/)
k - /k/, /g/ (in front vowel words: /g/ when immediately preceding a voiced consonant. In back vowel words, the uvular equivalents of the above sounds are allophonically present).
l - /ɬ/, /ɮ/ (/ɮ/ when immediately preceding a voiced consonant)
m - /m/, [m̥] ([m̥] when immediately preceding a voiceless consonant)
n - /n/, [n̥] ([n̥] when immediately preceding a voiceless consonant)
o - /ɔ/
ó - /ɔ̃/, /ɔ/ (This historically nasalized vowel has been denasalized in certain environments. See á).
oo - /ɔː/
p - /p/, /b/ (/b/ when immediately preceding a voiced consonant)
q - /tʃ/, /dʒ/ (/dʒ/ when immediately preceding a voiced consonant. /dʒ/ has a tendency to be deaffricated before nasals, nasalized vowels, and /ɾ/)
r - /ɾ/, [ɾ̥] ([ɾ̥] when immediately preceding a voiceless consonant)
s - /s/, [z] ([z] when immediately preceding a voiced consonant)
t - /t/, /d/ (/d/ when immediately preceding a voiced consonant)
u - /ʊ/
uu - /ʊ:/
w - /w/
x - /ʃ/, [ʒ] ([ʒ] when immediately preceding a voiced consonant)
y - /j/
z - /dz/, /ts/ (/ts/ when immediately preceding a voiceless consonant. /dz/ has a tendency to be deaffricated before nasals, nasalized vowels, and /ɾ/)
þ - /s/, [z] ([z] when immediately preceding a voiced consonant. This letter originally represented an interdental fricative, which has since merged with /s/)
ï - /ɯ/
ïï - /ɯ:/
ö - /œ/
ö' - /œ̃/, /œ/ (This historically nasalized vowel has been denasalized in certain environments. See á).
öö - /œ:/
ü - /ʏ/
üü - /ʏ:/
digraphs:
ng - /ŋ/ (back vowel words have [ɴ])
kw - /kʷ/ (back vowel words have [qʷ])
gw - /ɡʷ/, [ŋʷ] (in front vowel words: [ŋʷ] when adjacent to nasal vowel. In back vowel words, the uvular equivalents ( [ɢʷ], [ɴʷ] ) of the above sounds are allophonically present)
hw - /xʷ/ (back vowel words have [χʷ])
The w digraphs for labiovelars are only used prevocalically. As the first element of a consonant cluster or in postvocalic word-final position, labiovelars are indicated as uk/ük, ug/üg, or uh/üh, according to vowel harmony. When immediately preceded by the vowels u, uu, ü, or üü, the labiovelars are simply written as k, g, and h. Immediately following long or short /ʊ/ or /ʏ/, all velars are labialized, so there is no ambiguity. As the second element of a consonant cluster in word-final position, labiovelars are not orthographically distinguished from velars, making this the only instance in Yékis where the correct pronunciation cannot be discerned by applying systematic rules to the written form.
Representation of palatalized / palatal consonants:
All consonants are palatalized / palatal before e, é, ee, i, and ii, except the labiovelars, velar nasal, and all approximants and affricates, as these sounds are not susceptible to palatalization. In other environments, palatalized / palatal consonants are indicated with a following apostrophe.
b' - /bʲ/, /mʲ/, /pʲ/
d' - /dʲ/, /ɲ/, /tʲ/
ð' - /ɮʲ/, /ɬʲ/
f' - /ɸʲ/, [βʲ]
g' - /ɟ/, /ɲ/, /c/
h' - /ç/, [ʝ]
k' - /c/, /ɟ/
l' - /ɬʲ/, /ɮʲ/
m' - /mʲ/, [mʲ̥]
n' - /ɲ/, [ɲ̥]
p' - /pʲ/, /bʲ/
r' - /ɾʲ/, [ɾʲ̥]
s' - /sʲ/, [zʲ]
t' - /tʲ/, [dʲ]
þ' - /sʲ/, [zʲ]
Cyrillic Orthography
.........................................
Phonotactics
The syllable structure is (C)V(C)(C). Word-initial clusters are not permitted. A cluster may not consist of more than two consonants. Monosyllabic nominal, pronominal, adjectival, adverbial, and verbal roots ending in an open syllable always have a long vowel.
Grammar
| Gender | Cases | Numbers | Tenses | Persons | Moods | Voices | Aspects | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Verb | No | No | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
| Nouns | No | Yes | Yes | No | No | No | No | No |
| Adjectives | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No |
| Numbers | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No |
| Participles | No | No | No | Yes | No | No | Yes | No |
| Adverb | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No |
| Pronouns | No | Yes | Yes | No | Yes | No | No | No |
| Adpositions | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No |
| Article | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No |
| Particle | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No |
Nouns
Nouns are inflected to show whether they are in the possessive state (possessed), as opposed to the basic, unmarked (unpossessed) state. Nouns also inflect for number, definiteness, and case. All suffixes and endings containing vowels must agree in vowel harmony with the root to which they are being affixed. Yékis has 11 grammatical cases.
Nominal Stems
Number: Singular number is unmarked in Yékis. There are two possibilities for marking the plural number. If the nominal root ends in a single consonant or a vowel (any vowel, long, short, or nasalized), then the plural is marked through the addition of the ending -r to the root of the noun. If the nominal root ends in a cluster consisting of two consonants, then the ending -ar/er is added to the root of the noun, depending on whether the noun has back vowels or front vowels, respectively. A nominal root with a plural ending attached may be referred to as a plural stem, to which either a definite ending or case ending must be directly attached.
Definiteness: The indefinite state is unmarked. The definite state is indicated through the addition of an ending (this ending was originally an independent demonstrative pronoun) to the root of the noun if the noun is singular, or to the plural stem of the noun if the noun is plural. Singular nouns whose root ends in a single consonant or any vowel add the ending -n to the root of the noun. Singular nouns whose root ends in a cluster consisting of two consonants add the ending -an/en to the root of the noun, in accordance with vowel harmony. To plural stems ending in a single consonant (namely the ending -r mentioned just above) the ending -n is added directly to the plural stem (in other words, to plural stems formed from nominal roots ending in either a vowel or a cluster of two consonants). To plural stems ending in two consonants the ending -an/en is added directly to the plural stem (in other words, to plural stems formed from nominal roots ending in a single consonant). A nominal root or stem with a definite ending attached may be referred to as a definite singular stem or definite plural stem. To all definite stems a case ending must be directly attached.
Case: Case endings are attached either to the root of the noun (indefinite singular), the plural stem (indefinite plural), the definite singular stem, or the definite plural stem.
List of cases and their most common functions: Nominative (subject), Accusative (direct object), Benefactive (for someone/thing), Dative (to someone/thing), Genitive (noun modifying another noun), Partitive (amount), Instrumental (by means of an instrument), Comitative (accomanying an animate being), Lative (towards), Ablative (away from).
List of basic case endings: nominative -ul /-ül, accusative -al /-el, dative -ux/-üx, benefactive -ayh/-eyh, genitive -aug/-eüg, partitive –ál /-él, instrumental -ug/-üg, comitative -an/-en, lative -uk/-ük, ablative -uþ/-üþ, locative -ung/-üng.
A brief overview of nominal inflection: where R=noun root, P=plural marker,D=definite marker, C=case ending, O=possessive ending, endings are added to the root like so: R(P)(D)C(O). Case endings are the only endings that are obligatory; nouns will invariably require a case ending. Singular number is unmarked. Indefiniteness is unmarked. Unpossessed state is unmarked. The indefinite singular unpossessed follows the pattern: RC. The indefinite plural unpossessed: RPC. The definite singular unpossessed: RDC. The definite plural unpossessed: RPDC. As the unpossessed state is unmarked, all that is necessary to form the possessive state is to add one of the seven possessive endings (1st, 2nd, and 3rd person singular and plural, with a clusivity distinction in the 1st person plural) to any of the four patterns just mentioned. The only complication to this is the addition of 1st and second person possessive endings to the benefactive case stems, as the benefactive case ending already terminates in a consonant cluster. This complication will be explained in the section on possessive endings below. Nouns possessed by a 3rd person subject take an additional reflexive suffix.
Examples of nominal inflection (in the process of being transliterated into Latin orthography)
The inflection of all nouns falls into one of six patterns:
Back vowel roots ending in a vowel: ex. аугса (augsa) ‚storm‘
|
indefinite sing. |
indefinite plur. |
definite sing. |
definite plur. | |
|
nominative |
аугсаԓ |
аугсаруԓ |
аугсануԓ |
аугсарнуԓ |
|
accusative |
аугсаԓа |
аугсараԓ |
аугсанаԓ |
аугсарнаԓ |
|
dative |
аугсаш |
аугсаруш |
аугсануш |
аугсарнуш |
|
benefactive |
аугсаях |
аугсарайх |
аугсанайх |
аугсарнайх |
|
genitive |
аугсагва |
аугсарауг |
аугсанауг |
аугсарнауг |
|
partitive |
аугсаԓа́ |
аугсара́ԓ |
аугсана́ԓ |
аугсарна́ԓ |
|
instrumental |
аугсагву |
аугсаруг |
аугсануг |
аугсарнуг |
|
comitative |
аугсан |
аугсаран |
аугсанан |
аугсарнан |
|
lative |
аугсаук |
аугсарук |
аугсанук |
аугсарнук |
|
ablative |
аугсащ |
аугсарущ |
аугсанущ |
аугсарнущ |
|
locative |
аугсанг |
аугсарунг |
аугсанунг |
аугсарнунг |
Back vowel roots ending in a single consonant: ex. ац (ac) ‚beach‘
|
indefinite sing. |
indefinite plur. |
definite sing. |
definite plur. | |
|
nominative |
ацуԓ |
ацруԓ |
ацнуԓ |
ацрануԓ |
|
accusative |
ацаԓ |
ацраԓ |
ацнаԓ |
ацранаԓ |
|
dative |
ацуш |
ацруш |
ацнуш |
ацрануш |
|
benefactive |
ацайх |
ацрайх |
ацнайх |
ацранайх |
|
genitive |
ацауг |
ацрауг |
ацнауг |
ацранауг |
|
partitive |
аца́ԓ |
ацра́ԓ |
ацна́ԓ |
ацрана́ԓ |
|
instrumental |
ацуг |
ацруг |
ацнуг |
ацрануг |
|
comitative |
ацан |
ацран |
ацнан |
ацранан |
|
lative |
ацук |
ацрук |
ацнук |
ацранук |
|
ablative |
ацущ |
ацрущ |
ацнущ |
ацранущ |
|
locative |
ацунг |
ацрунг |
ацнунг |
ацранунг |
Back vowel roots ending in two consonants: ex. мотьс (mot‘s) ‚mother‘
|
indefinite sing. |
indefinite plur. |
definite sing. |
definite plur. | |
|
nominative |
мотьсуԓ |
мотьсаруԓ |
мотьсануԓ |
мотьсарнуԓ |
|
accusative |
мотьсаԓ |
мотьсараԓ |
мотьсанаԓ |
мотьсарнаԓ |
|
dative |
мотьсуш |
мотьсаруш |
мотьсануш |
мотьсарнуш |
|
benefactive |
мотьсайх |
мотьсарайх |
мотьсанайх |
мотьсарнайх |
|
genitive |
мотьсауг |
мотьсарауг |
мотьсанауг |
мотьсарнауг |
|
partitive |
мотьса́ԓ |
мотьсара́ԓ |
мотьсана́ԓ |
мотьсарна́ԓ |
|
instrumental |
мотьсуг |
мотьсаруг |
мотьсануг |
мотьсарнуг |
|
comitative |
мотьсан |
мотьсаран |
мотьсанан |
мотьсарнан |
|
lative |
мотьсук |
мотьарук |
мотьсанук |
мотьсарнук |
|
ablative |
мотьсущ |
мотьсарущ |
мотьсанущ |
мотьсарнущ |
|
locative |
мотьсунг |
мотьсарунг |
мотьсанунг |
мотьсарнунг |
Front vowel roots ending in a vowel: ex. чэ‘ (qé) ‚year‘
|
indefinite sing. |
indefinite plur. |
definite sing. |
definite plur. | |
|
nominative |
чэ́ԓ |
чэ́рүԓ |
чэ́нүԓ |
чэ́рнүԓ |
|
accusative |
чэ́ԓе |
чэ́реԓ |
чэ́неԓ |
чэ́рнеԓ |
|
dative |
чэ́ш |
чэ́рүш |
чэ́нүш |
чэ́рнүш |
|
benefactive |
чэ́ех |
чэ́рейх |
чэ́нейх |
чэ́рнейх |
|
genitive |
чэ́гвэ |
чэ́реүг |
чэ́неүг |
чэ́рнеүг |
|
partitive |
чэ́ԓе́ |
чэ́ре́ԓ |
чэ́не́ԓ |
чэ́рне́ԓ |
|
instrumental |
чэ́гвү |
чэ́рүг |
чэ́нүг |
чэ́рнүг |
|
comitative |
чэ́н |
чэ́рен |
чэ́нен |
чэ́рнен |
|
lative |
чэ́үк |
чэ́рүк |
чэ́нүк |
чэ́рнүк |
|
ablative |
чэ́щ |
чэ́рүщ |
чэ́нүщ |
чэ́рнүщ |
|
locative |
чэ́нг |
чэ́рүнг |
чэ́нүнг |
чэ́рнүнг |
Front vowel roots ending in a single consonant: ex. чэк (qek) ‚language, tongue‘
|
indefinite sing. |
indefinite plur. |
definite sing. |
definite plur. | |
|
nominative |
чэкүԓ |
чэкрүԓ |
чэкнүԓ |
чэкренүԓ |
|
accusative |
чэкэԓ |
чэкреԓ |
чэкнеԓ |
чэкренеԓ |
|
dative |
чэкүш |
чэкрүш |
чэкнүш |
чэкренүш |
|
benefactive |
чэкэйх |
чэкрейх |
чэкнейх |
чэкренейх |
|
genitive |
чэкэүг |
чэкреүг |
чэкнеүг |
чэкренеүг |
|
partitive |
чэкэ́ԓ |
чэкре́ԓ |
чэкне́ԓ |
чэкрене́ԓ |
|
instumental |
чэкүг |
чэкрүг |
чэкнүг |
чэкренүг |
|
comitative |
чэкэн |
чэкрен |
чэкнен |
чэкренен |
|
lative |
чэкүк |
чэкрүк |
чэкнүк |
чэкренүк |
|
ablative |
чэкүщ |
чэкрүщ |
чэкнүщ |
чэкренүщ |
|
locative |
чэкүнг |
чэкрүнг |
чэкнүнг |
чэкренүнг |
Front vowel roots ending in two consonants: ex. бөрьш (bör‘x) ‚water‘
|
indefinite sing. |
indefinite plur. |
definite sing. |
definite plur. | |
|
nominative |
бөрьшүԓ |
бөрьшэрүԓ |
бөрьшэнүԓ |
бөрьшэрнүԓ |
|
accusative |
бөрьшэԓ |
бөрьшэреԓ |
бөрьшэнеԓ |
бөрьшэрнеԓ |
|
dative |
бөрьшүш |
бөрьшэрүш |
бөрьшэнүш |
бөрьшэрнүш |
|
benefactive |
бөрьшэйх |
бөрьшэрейх |
бөрьшэнейх |
бөрьшэрнейх |
|
genitive |
бөрьшэүг |
бөрьшэреүг |
бөрьшэнеүг |
бөрьшэрнеүг |
|
partitive |
бөрьшэ́ԓ |
бөрьшэре́ԓ |
бөрьшэне́ԓ |
бөрьшэрне́ԓ |
|
instrumental |
бөрьшүг |
бөрьшэрүг |
бөрьшэнүг |
бөрьшэрнүг |
|
comitative |
бөрьшэн |
бөрьшэрен |
бөрьшэнен |
бөрьшэрнен |
|
lative |
бөрьшүк |
бөрьшэрүк |
бөрьшэнүк |
бөрьшэрнүк |
|
ablative |
бөрьшүщ |
бөрьшэрүщ |
бөрьшэнүщ |
бөрьшэрнүщ |
|
locative |
бөрьшүнг |
бөрьшэрүнг |
бөрьшэнүнг |
бөрьшэрнүнг |
Possessed Nouns
...............................
Adjectives
Attributive adjectives are completely uninflected. Predicate adjectives are required to have nominative nominal endings.
Verbs
Verbs conjugate for person and number of the subject, person and number of the direct object (if transitive), tense, voice, mood, and aspect. There is a clusivity distinction in the 1st person plural.
Syntax
Vocabulary
Numbers:
zero - ürg
one - mong
two - qii
three - gwuu
four - ouh
five - yaf
six - el
seven - yeeq
eight - ir
nine - yoouh
ten - þang
eleven - þö'bé
twelve - þéq
thirteen - þö'üg
fourteen - þóuh
fifteen - þáyf
sixteen - þéðl
seventeen - þáðbï
eighteen - þen'r
nineteen - þaan'á
twenty - qeþé
twenty-one - qeþémong
twenty-two - qeþéqii
thirty - gwoþá
thirty-one - gwoþámong
fourty - ooþá
fifty - yaaþá
sixty - eleþ'
seventy - elbéþ
eighty - eeþé
ninety - d'áþá
one hundred - þáþ
Kinship / Other terms:
brother - jöt's
daughter - tör's
family - xöüh
father - wöt's
man - n'öbjin
mother - mot's
sister - elet's
son - elés
woman - bóbjïn
Parts of the body:
arm - op
ear - ix
eye - eejr
finger - yauh, gwécyauh
foot - or
hand - gwéc
heart - ar
head - aar
knee - dii
leg - orpu
mouth - upf
toe - oryauh
tongue - qek
tooth - zerr
Geography:
bay - xebs
city - gwoh'
field - ajïn
forest - cüy
hill - gwö'
island - al't
land - ziy
mountain - gwöy
peak - qif
plain - cá
river - gwáwrïs
sea - can
town - ilijt
Directions:
east - zeye
north - eleng
south - xeng
west - teh'
Weather:
flood - übrix
freezing rain - n. yöyr, v. yöyh
ice (general term) - yoo
ice (specifically of a flat, frozen surface) - xáh
rain - n. yeer, v. yeyh
sky - hwar
sleet - n. tïp, v. tïph
snow - n. yüjé, v. yüqh
storm - augsa
thunder - uun
weather - cang
Time / Seasons:
Common verbs: